Tarihin Myanmar Tsarin lokaci

appendices

bayanin kula

nassoshi


Tarihin Myanmar
History of Myanmar ©HistoryMaps

1500 BCE - 2024

Tarihin Myanmar



Tarihin Myanmar, wanda kuma aka sani da Burma, ya ƙunshi lokaci daga lokacin da aka fara sanin matsugunan ’yan Adam shekaru 13,000 da suka wuce zuwa yau.Farkon mazaunan tarihin da aka rubuta su ne mutanen Tibeto-Burman waɗanda suka kafa jahohin birnin Pyu sun kai kudu zuwa Pyay kuma suka ɗauki addinin Buddha na Theravada.Wani rukuni, mutanen Bamar, sun shiga kwarin Irrawaddy na sama a farkon karni na 9.Sun ci gaba da kafa Masarautar Maguzawa (1044-1297), haɗin kai na farko na kwarin Irrawaddy da kewayensa.Harshen Burma da al'adun Burma sun zo sannu a hankali don maye gurbin ka'idodin Pyu a wannan lokacin.Bayan mamayewar Mongol na farko a Burma a cikin 1287, ƙananan masarautu da yawa, waɗanda Masarautar Ava, Masarautar Hanthawaddy, Masarautar Mrauk U da Jihohin Shan suka kasance manyan iko, sun mamaye filin ƙasa, cike da ƙawance masu canzawa koyaushe. da yaƙe-yaƙe na dindindin.A cikin rabin na biyu na karni na 16, daular Toungoo (1510-1752) ta sake hade kasar, kuma ta kafa daula mafi girma a tarihin kudu maso gabashin Asiya na dan kankanin lokaci.Daga baya sarakunan Taungoo sun kafa wasu muhimman gyare-gyare na gudanarwa da tattalin arziki waɗanda suka haifar da ƙarami, mafi zaman lafiya da wadata a ƙarni na 17 da farkon 18th.A cikin rabin na biyu na karni na 18, daular Konbaung (1752-1885) ta maido da mulkin, kuma ta ci gaba da gyare-gyaren Taungoo wanda ya kara yawan mulkin tsakiya a yankunan da ke kewaye da kuma samar da daya daga cikin mafi yawan jihohi a Asiya.Daular kuma ta tafi yaki da dukkan makwabtanta.Yaƙe-yaƙe na Anglo-Burma (1824-85) daga ƙarshe ya kai ga mulkin mallaka na Burtaniya .Mulkin Biritaniya ya kawo sauye-sauye masu dorewa na zamantakewa, tattalin arziki, al'adu da gudanarwa waɗanda suka canza gaba ɗaya al'ummar noma sau ɗaya.Mulkin Birtaniyya ya nuna bambance-bambance tsakanin kungiyoyi da dama a cikin kabilun kasar.Tun bayan samun ‘yancin kai a shekarar 1948, kasar ta kasance cikin yakin basasa mafi dadewa da ya hada da kungiyoyin ‘yan tawaye masu wakiltar ‘yan tsiraru na siyasa da na kabilu da gwamnatocin tsakiya da suka gaje su.Kasar dai ta kasance karkashin mulkin soja ne a karkashin salo daban-daban tun daga shekarar 1962 zuwa 2010 da kuma daga shekarar 2021 zuwa yanzu, kuma a cikin tsarin da ake ganin ya yi kamari ya zama daya daga cikin kasashe mafi karancin ci gaba a duniya.
1500 BCE Jan 1 - 200 BCE

Tarihin Myanmar

Myanmar (Burma)
Tarihin Burma (Myanmar) ya kai ɗaruruwan mileni zuwa kusan 200 KZ.Shaidun archaeological sun nuna cewa Homo erectus ya rayu a yankin da ake kira Burma a yanzu shekaru 750,000 da suka wuce, kuma Homo sapiens kimanin 11,000 KZ, a cikin al'adun zamanin dutse da ake kira Anathian.An sanya wa suna bayan wuraren tsakiyar busassun wuraren da aka samu mafi yawan wuraren zama na farko, lokacin Anyathian shine lokacin da aka fara shuka tsiro da dabbobi kuma kayan aikin dutse masu gogewa suka bayyana a Burma.Ko da yake waɗannan wuraren suna cikin wurare masu albarka, shaidu sun nuna cewa mutanen farko ba su san hanyoyin noma ba tukuna.[1]Zamanin Bronze ya isa c.1500 KZ lokacin da mutanen yankin suke juya jan karfe zuwa tagulla, noman shinkafa, da kaji da alade.Zamanin ƙarfe ya zo kusan 500 KZ lokacin da ƙauyuka masu aikin ƙarfe suka fito a wani yanki kudu da Mandalay na yau.[2] Har ila yau, shaidu sun nuna matsugunan noman shinkafa na manyan ƙauyuka da ƙananan garuruwa waɗanda ke yin ciniki da kewayensu har zuwaChina tsakanin 500 KZ zuwa 200 CE.[3] Akwatunan gawa da aka yi wa ado da tagulla da wuraren binnewa da ke cike da ragowar kayan liyafa na liyafa da sha suna ba da haske kan salon rayuwar al'ummarsu masu wadata.[2]Shaidar ciniki tana nuna ci gaba da ƙaura a cikin zamanin kafin tarihi ko da yake farkon shaidar ƙaura mai yawa kawai tana nuni ne ga c.200 KZ lokacin da mutanen Pyu, farkon mazaunan Burma waɗanda bayanansu ba su wanzu ba, [4] suka fara ƙaura zuwa kwarin Irrawaddy na sama daga Yunnan na yau.[5] Pyu ya ci gaba da samun matsuguni a ko'ina cikin yankin filayen da suka ta'allaka kan haduwar kogin Irrawaddy da Chindwin wadanda aka zauna tun a Paleolithic.[6] Ƙungiyoyi daban-daban kamar su Mon, Arakanese da Mranma (Burmans) sun bi Pyu a cikin ƙarni na farko AZ.A zamanin Maguzawa, rubuce-rubucen sun nuna Thets, Kadus, Sgaws, Kanyans, Palaungs, Was da Shans suma sun zauna kwarin Irrawaddy da yankunanta.[7]
Pyu birni-jihohin
Zamanin Bronze a kudu maso gabashin Asiya ©Image Attribution forthcoming. Image belongs to the respective owner(s).
100 BCE Jan 1 - 1050

Pyu birni-jihohin

Myanmar (Burma)
Jihohin birnin Pyu rukuni ne na biranen da suka wanzu tun daga kusan karni na 2 KZ zuwa tsakiyar karni na 11 a Burma ta yanzu (Myanmar).Mutanen Pyu masu magana da Tibeto-Burman ne suka kafa jihohin-birni a matsayin wani ɓangare na ƙaura zuwa kudu, waɗanda farkon mazaunan Burma waɗanda bayanansu ke nan.[8] Tsawon shekaru dubu, wanda galibi ana kiransa da Millennium Pyu, ya danganta zamanin Bronze zuwa farkon lokacin jahohin gargajiya lokacin da Masarautar Maguzawa ta bayyana a ƙarshen karni na 9.Pyu ya shiga kwarin Irrawaddy daga Yunnan na yau, c.Karni na biyu KZ, kuma ya ci gaba da samun jahohin birni a cikin kwarin Irrawaddy.An sake gina ainihin gidan Pyu ya zama tafkin Qinghai a Qinghai da Gansu na yau.[9] Pyu sune farkon mazaunan Burma waɗanda bayanansu ke nan.[10] A wannan lokacin, Burma wani bangare ne na hanyar kasuwanci ta kan kasa dagaChina zuwaIndiya .Ciniki tare da Indiya ya kawo addinin Buddah daga Kudancin Indiya, da kuma sauran ra'ayoyin al'adu, gine-gine da siyasa, waɗanda za su sami tasiri mai dorewa akan ƙungiyar siyasa da al'adun Burma.A karni na 4, da yawa a cikin kwarin Irrawaddy sun koma addinin Buddha.[11] Rubutun Pyu, bisa ga rubutun Brahmi, ƙila shine tushen rubutun Burma da aka yi amfani da shi don rubuta harshen Burma.[12] Daga cikin jahohin birni da yawa, mafi girma kuma mafi mahimmanci shine Masarautar Sri Ksetra kudu maso gabas na Pyay na zamani, wanda kuma ake tunanin ya taɓa zama babban birni.[13] A cikin Maris 638, Pyu na Sri Ksetra ya ƙaddamar da sabon kalanda wanda daga baya ya zama kalandar Burma.[10]Manyan Jihohin Pyu duk suna cikin manyan yankuna uku masu ban ruwa na Upper Burma: kwarin Mu, filayen Kyaukse da yankin Minbu, kusa da mahadar kogin Irrawaddy da Chindwin.Manyan garuruwa biyar masu katanga- Beikthano, Maingmaw, Binnaka, Hanlin, da Sri Ksetra - da kuma ƙananan garuruwa da yawa an tona su a cikin kogin Irrawaddy.Hanlin, wanda aka kafa a karni na 1 AZ, shine birni mafi girma kuma mafi mahimmanci har zuwa kusan karni na 7 ko 8 lokacin da Sri Ksetra (kusa da Pyay na zamani) ya maye gurbinsa a gefen kudancin Pyu.Sau biyu girma kamar Halin, Sri Ksetra ita ce babbar cibiyar Pyu mafi girma kuma mafi tasiri.[10]Bayanai na kasar Sin na karni na takwas sun bayyana jihohin Pyu 18 a cikin kwarin Irrawaddy, kuma sun bayyana Pyu a matsayin mutane masu mutuntawa da zaman lafiya wadanda ba a san yaki da su ba, kuma suna sanya audugar alharini maimakon siliki ta zahiri don kada su kashe tsutsotsin siliki.Har ila yau, bayanan na kasar Sin sun ba da rahoton cewa, Pyu ya san yadda ake yin lissafin ilmin taurari, kuma yara maza da yawa na Pyu sun shiga rayuwar zuhudu tun suna da shekaru bakwai zuwa shekaru 20. [10.]Wayewa ce mai dorewa wacce ta yi kusan shekara dubu zuwa farkon karni na 9 har sai da wani sabon rukunin "masan doki masu sauri" daga arewa, Bamars, suka shiga kwarin Irrawaddy na sama.A farkon karni na 9, jihohin Pyu na Upper Burma sun fuskanci hare-hare akai-akai daga Nanzhao (a Yunnan na zamani).A cikin 832, Nanzhao ya kori Halingyi, wanda ya zarce Prome a matsayin babban birni na Pyu kuma babban birni na yau da kullun.Mutanen Bamar sun kafa garrison garin Bagan (Pagan) a mahadar kogin Irrawaddy da Chindwin.Mazaunan Pyu sun kasance a Babban Burma har tsawon ƙarni uku masu zuwa amma a hankali Pyu sun shiga cikin faɗaɗa Masarautar Maguzawa.Har yanzu harshen Pyu ya kasance har zuwa ƙarshen karni na 12.A karni na 13, Pyu sun ɗauki ƙabilar Burman.Tarihi da tatsuniyoyi na Pyu kuma an haɗa su da na Bamar.[14]
Masarautar Dhanyawaddy
Kingdom of Dhanyawaddy ©Anonymous
300 Jan 1 - 370

Masarautar Dhanyawaddy

Rakhine State, Myanmar (Burma)
Dhanyawaddy shi ne babban birnin Masarautar Arakanese ta farko, wacce ke cikin jihar Rakhine ta Arewa a yanzu, Myanmar.Sunan ɓatanci ne na kalmar Pali Dhannavati, wanda ke nufin "babban yanki ko noman shinkafa ko kwanon shinkafa".Kamar yawancin waɗanda suka gaje ta, Masarautar Dhanyawadi ta dogara ne akan kasuwanci tsakanin Gabas (Pagan Myanmar, Pyu, China, Mons), da Yamma (ƙasar Indiya).Bayanan rikodin farko sun nuna wayewar Arakan da aka kafa a kusan karni na 4 AD."Rakhine da ke da rinjaye a halin yanzu, jinsin Tibeto-Burman ne, rukuni na ƙarshe na mutanen da suka shiga Arakan a cikin karni na 10 da kuma gaba."Dhanyawadi na d ¯ a yana yamma da tsaunin tsauni tsakanin kogin Kaladan da Le-mro. Ganuwar birnin an yi su ne da bulo, kuma sun zama da'irar da ba ta dace ba tare da kewayen kusan kilomita 9.6 (mil 6.0), tare da rufe wani yanki na kusan kilomita 4.42 (mil 6.0). Kadada 1,090) Bayan bangon, ragowar wani tudu mai faffadan, wanda a yanzu ya yi sila kuma ya lullube shi da filayen fadi, har yanzu ana iya gani a wurare, a lokutan rashin tsaro, a lokacin da birnin ke fama da hare-hare daga kabilun tuddai ko yunkurin mamayewa daga birnin. Da a ce an samar da ingantaccen abinci wanda zai ba jama'a damar jure wa kawanya, da birnin ya mallaki kwarin da }ananan rafuffukan }ananan }o}arin }asa, yana tallafa wa tattalin arzi}in jika da shinkafa da taungya (yankewa da konewa), tare da biyan sarakunan yankin. biyayya ga sarki.
Waithali
Waithali ©Anonymous
370 Jan 1 - 818

Waithali

Mrauk-U, Myanmar (Burma)
An kiyasta cewa cibiyar ikon duniyar Arakan ta tashi daga Dhanyawadi zuwa Waithali a karni na 4 AZ yayin da masarautar Dhanyawadi ta ƙare a shekara ta 370 AZ.Kodayake an kafa ta bayan Dhanyawadi, Waithali ita ce mafi Indiyawa daga cikin masarautun Arakan guda huɗu da suka fito.Kamar duk Masarautun Arakan da ke fitowa, Masarautar Waithali ta dogara ne akan kasuwanci tsakanin Gabas (jahohin birnin Pyu, China, Mons), da Yamma (Indiya , Bengal, da Farisa ).Masarautar ta bunƙasa ne daga hanyoyin tekunChina -Indiya.[34] Waithali sanannen tashar jiragen ruwa ce ta kasuwanci tare da dubban jiragen ruwa suna zuwa kowace shekara a tsayinta.An gina birnin a bakin rafi kuma an rufe shi da bangon bulo.Tsarin birni yana da tasiri mai mahimmanci na Hindu da Indiyawa.[35] A cewar Rubutun Anandachandra, wanda aka zana a cikin 7349 AZ, batutuwa na Masarautar Waithali sun yi addinin Buddha na Mahayana , kuma suna shelar cewa daular mulkin masarautar zuriyar allahn Hindu ne, Shiva.A ƙarshe Masarautar ta ragu a ƙarni na 10, tare da tushen siyasar Rakhine ta ƙaura zuwa jihohin kwarin Le-mro a daidai lokacin da masarautar Bagan ta tashi a tsakiyar Myanmar.Wasu masana tarihi sun kammala cewa raguwar ta samo asali ne daga mamayewa ko kuma ƙaura daga Mranma (mutanen Bamar) a ƙarni na 10.[34]
Mon Masarautar
Mon Kingdoms ©Maurice Fievet
400 Jan 1 - 1000

Mon Masarautar

Thaton, Myanmar (Burma)
Masarautar farko da aka yi rikodin da aka danganta ga mutanen Mon ita ce Dvaravati, [15] wanda ya ci gaba har zuwa kusan 1000 AZ lokacin da daular Khmer ta kori babban birninsu kuma wani yanki mai mahimmanci na mazaunan sun gudu zuwa yamma zuwa Ƙasar Burma ta yau kuma a ƙarshe sun kafa sababbin siyasa. .Wata jihar Haripuñjaya mai magana ta Mon ita ma ta wanzu a arewacin Thailand har zuwa ƙarshen karni na 13.[16]Dangane da ilimin zamanin mulkin mallaka, tun farkon karni na 6, Mon ya fara shiga Ƙasar Burma ta yau daga masarautun Mon na Haribhunjaya da Dvaravati a Thailand ta zamani.A tsakiyar karni na 9, Mon ya kafa aƙalla ƙananan masarautu biyu (ko manyan jahohin birni) waɗanda ke kewaye da Bago da Thaton.Jihohin sun kasance muhimman tashoshin kasuwanci tsakanin tekun Indiya da babban yankin kudu maso gabashin Asiya.Duk da haka, bisa ga sake gina al'ada, farkon Mon birni sun kasance Masarautar Pagan daga arewa ta ci nasara a 1057, kuma al'adun wallafe-wallafen na Thaton sun taimaka wajen tsara wayewar Pagan na farko.[17] Tsakanin 1050 zuwa kusan 1085, Mon masu sana'a da masu sana'a sun taimaka wajen gina wasu abubuwan tarihi guda dubu biyu a Pagan, wanda ragowarsu a yau suna hamayya da ƙawayen Angkor Wat.[18] Rubutun Mon ana ɗaukarsa shine tushen rubutun Burmese, farkon shaidar da aka rubuta ta zuwa 1058, shekara guda bayan cin nasarar Thaton, ta hanyar malanta na zamanin mulkin mallaka.[19]Duk da haka, bincike daga 2000s (har yanzu ra'ayi na 'yan tsiraru) yana jayayya cewa Mon tasiri a cikin ciki bayan cin nasara na Anawrahta shine babban labari mai ban sha'awa bayan Pagan, kuma Lower Burma a gaskiya ba shi da cikakkiyar siyasa mai zaman kanta kafin fadada Pagan.[20] Wataƙila a cikin wannan lokacin, ɓarna na delta - wanda a yanzu ya shimfiɗa bakin tekun da mil uku (kilomita 4.8) a cikin ƙarni - ya kasance bai isa ba, kuma har yanzu tekun ya kai nisa a cikin ƙasa, don tallafawa yawan jama'a har ma da girman kai. yawan mutanen ƙarshen zamanin mulkin mallaka.Shaidar farko na rubutun Burma ta kasance kwanan wata zuwa 1035, kuma maiyuwa a farkon 984, duka biyun sun rigaya fiye da shaidar farko na rubutun Burma Mon (1093).Bincike daga 2000s yana jayayya cewa rubutun Pyu shine tushen rubutun Burma.[21]Ko da yake har yanzu ana muhawara game da girman da muhimmancin waɗannan jihohi, duk malaman sun yarda cewa a cikin karni na 11, Pagan ya kafa ikonsa a Lower Burma kuma wannan cin nasara ya sauƙaƙe haɓaka al'adun gargajiya, idan ba tare da Mon na gida ba, sannan tare da Indiya da kuma tare da Theravada mai karfi Sri Lanka.Ta fuskar yanayin siyasa, cin nasarar Anawrahta na Thaton ya duba ci gaban Khmer a gabar Tenasserim.[20]
849 - 1294
Baganornament
Masarautar Maguzawa
Daular Maguzawa. ©Anonymous
849 Jan 2 - 1297

Masarautar Maguzawa

Bagan, Myanmar (Burma)
Masarautar Maguzawa ita ce Masarautar Burma ta farko da ta haɗa yankunan da za su zama Myanmar ta zamani.Mulkin Maguzawa na tsawon shekaru 250 akan kwarin Irrawaddy da kewayensa ya kafa harsashin hawan harshe da al'adun Burma, da yaduwar ƙabilar Bamar a Upper Myanmar, da bunƙasa addinin Buddah na Theravada a Myanmar da kuma yankin kudu maso gabashin Asiya.[22]Masarautar ta girma ne daga ƙaramin ƙauyen ƙarni na 9 a Pagan (Bagan na yanzu) ta Mranma/Burmans, waɗanda kwanan nan suka shiga kwarin Irrawaddy daga Masarautar Nanzhao.A cikin shekaru ɗari biyu masu zuwa, ƙananan masarautun sun girma a hankali suna mamaye yankunan da ke kewaye da su har zuwa 1050s da 1060s lokacin da Sarki Anawrahta ya kafa daular Maguzawa, a karon farko da suka haɗu a ƙarƙashin mulkin ɗaya na kwari na Irrawaddy da kewayenta.A karshen karni na 12, magadan Anawrahta sun kara fadada tasirinsu zuwa kudu zuwa babban yankin Malay , zuwa gabas a kalla zuwa kogin Salween, a arewa mai nisa zuwa kasa da iyakar kasar Sin a halin yanzu, da kuma zuwa yamma, a arewaci. Arakan and the Chin Hills.[23] A cikin ƙarni na 12 da na 13, Pagan, tare da daular Khmer , ɗaya ne daga cikin manyan masarautu guda biyu a yankin kudu maso gabashin Asiya.[24]Harshen Burma da al'adun Burma sannu a hankali sun zama masu rinjaye a cikin babban kwarin Irrawaddy, sun mamaye ka'idojin Pyu, Mon da Pali a ƙarshen karni na 12.Addinin Buddha na Theravada sannu a hankali ya fara yaɗuwa zuwa ƙauyen ko da yake Tantric, Mahayana, Brahmanic , da ayyukan raye-raye sun kasance da ƙarfi sosai a duk yanayin zamantakewa.Sarakunan Maguzawa sun gina haikalin Buddha sama da 10,000 a yankin Bagan Archaeological Zone wanda sama da 2000 suka rage.Masu hannu da shuni sun ba da gudummawar fili ba tare da haraji ba ga hukumomin addini.[25]Masarautar ta koma koma baya a tsakiyar karni na 13 yayin da ci gaba da karuwar arzikin addini ba tare da biyan haraji ba a shekarun 1280 ya yi matukar tasiri ga ikon kambi na rike amanar sarakuna da jami'an soja.Wannan ya haifar da mummunar da'ira na rikice-rikice na ciki da ƙalubalen waje ta Arakanese, Mons, Mongols da Shans.Mamayewar Mongol da aka yi ta yi (1277-1301) sun hambarar da mulkin da aka yi a ƙarni huɗu a shekara ta 1287. Rushewar ya biyo bayan shekaru 250 na rarrabuwar kawuna na siyasa wanda ya daɗe har zuwa ƙarni na 16.[26] An raba Masarautar Maguzawa ba tare da misaltuwa ba zuwa kananan masarautu da yawa.A tsakiyar karni na 14, kasar ta kasance cikin tsari tare da manyan cibiyoyin iko guda hudu: Upper Burma, Lower Burma, Shan Jihohin da Arakan.Yawancin cibiyoyin wutar lantarki da kansu sun kasance (sau da yawa ana yin sako-sako) ƙananan masarautu ko jahohin sarakuna.Wannan zamanin ya kasance da jerin yaƙe-yaƙe da sauya ƙawance.Ƙananan masarautu sun buga wasan da bai dace ba na biyan mubaya'a ga jihohi masu ƙarfi, wani lokacin lokaci guda.
Jihohin Shan
Shan States ©Anonymous
1287 Jan 1 - 1563

Jihohin Shan

Mogaung, Myanmar (Burma)
Tarihin farko na jihohin Shan ya ruɗe cikin tatsuniya.Yawancin jihohi sun yi iƙirarin cewa an kafa su a kan wata ƙasa da ta gabace ta da sunan Sanskrit Shen/Sen.Tarihin Tai Yai yawanci yana farawa ne da labarin wasu 'yan'uwa biyu, Khun Lung da Khun Lai, waɗanda suka sauko daga sama a ƙarni na 6 kuma suka sauka a Hsenwi, inda al'ummar yankin ke yaba su a matsayin sarakuna.[30] Shan, kabilar Tai , sun zauna a tsaunin Shan da sauran sassan arewacin Burma na zamani har zuwa karni na 10 AD.Masarautar Shan ta Mong Mao (Muang Mao) ta kasance a Yunnan a farkon karni na 10 AZ amma ta zama kasar Burma a lokacin mulkin Sarki Anawrahta na Maguzawa (1044-1077).[31]An kafa babbar jihar Shan ta farko a shekarar 1215 a Mogaung, sannan Mone ta biyo baya a 1223. Waɗannan suna cikin babban ƙaura na Tai wanda ya kafa Masarautar Ahom a 1229 da Masarautar Sukhothai a 1253. [32] Shans, ciki har da wani sabon hijira da ya zo tare da Mongols, da sauri ya mamaye wani yanki daga arewacin jihar Chin da yankin arewa maso yammacin Sagaing zuwa tsaunin Shan na yau.Sabuwar Jihohin Shan da aka kafa sun kasance jahohi masu yawan kabilu da yawa waɗanda suka haɗa da adadi mai yawa na sauran tsirarun ƙabilun kamar Chin, Palaung, Pa-O, Kachin, Akha, Lahu, Wa da Burmans.Jihohin Shan da suka fi karfi su ne Mohnyin (Mong Yang) da Mogaung (Mong Kawng) a Jihar Kachin ta yau, sai Theinni (Hsenwi), Thibaw (Hsipaw), Momeik (Mong Mit) da Kyaingtong (Keng Tung) a halin yanzu- ranar arewacin jihar Shan.[33]
Masarautar Hanthawaddy
Yaƙin Shekara Arba'in tsakanin Masarautar Ava mai magana da Burma da Masarautar Hanthawaddy mai magana da Mon. ©Anonymous
1287 Jan 1 - 1552

Masarautar Hanthawaddy

Mottama, Myanmar (Burma)
Masarautar Hanthawaddy wata muhimmiyar mulkin ce a ƙasar Burma (Myanmar) wadda ta wanzu a cikin lokuta daban-daban: daga 1287 [27] zuwa 1539 da kuma a takaice daga 1550 zuwa 1552. Sarki Wareru ya kafa shi a matsayin vassal jihar zuwa Masarautar Sukhothai da MongolYuan .daular [28] , daga ƙarshe ta sami 'yancin kai a cikin 1330. Duk da haka, masarautar ta kasance sako-sako da tarayya da ta ƙunshi manyan yankuna uku - Bago, Irrawaddy Delta, da Mottama - tare da iyakacin iko.Sarautar Sarki Razadarit a karshen karni na 14 da farkon karni na 15 ya kasance muhimmi wajen hada kan wadannan yankuna tare da dakile masarautar Ava zuwa arewa, wanda ke nuna wani babban matsayi a samuwar Hanthawaddy.Masarautar ta shiga zamanin zinare bayan yaƙin da Ava, ta zama ƙasa mafi wadata da ƙarfi a yankin daga 1420s zuwa 1530s.Karkashin sarakuna masu hazaka irin su Binnya Ran I, Shin Sawbu, da Dhammazedi, Hanthawaddy ya bunkasa ta fuskar tattalin arziki da al'adu.Ta zama muhimmiyar cibiyar addinin Buddah ta Theravada kuma ta kafa dangantakar kasuwanci mai karfi a fadin Tekun Indiya, tana wadatar da taskarta da kayayyakin kasashen waje kamar zinari, siliki, da kayan yaji.Ya kafa dangantaka mai karfi da Sri Lanka kuma ya karfafa gyare-gyaren da daga baya ya bazu ko'ina cikin kasar.[29]Duk da haka, masarautar ta gamu da faduwa kwatsam a hannun daular Taungoo daga Upper Burma a tsakiyar karni na 16.Duk da yawan albarkatun da yake da ita, Hanthawaddy, a karkashin Sarki Takayutpi, ya kasa dakile kamfen din soja karkashin jagorancin Tabinshwehti da mataimakinsa Janar Bayinnaung.An ci Hanthawaddy daga ƙarshe kuma ya shiga cikin Daular Taungoo, ko da yake ya ɗan farfado a cikin 1550 bayan kisan gillar Tabinshwehti.Gadon masarautar ya rayu a tsakanin mutanen Mon, waɗanda a ƙarshe za su sake tashi don samun Masarautar Hanthawaddy da aka Maido a 1740.
Masarautar Ava
Kingdom of Ava ©Anonymous
1365 Jan 1 - 1555

Masarautar Ava

Inwa, Myanmar (Burma)
Masarautar Ava, wacce aka kafa a shekara ta 1364, ta ɗauki kanta a matsayin halastaccen magajin daular Maguzawa kuma da farko ta nemi sake ƙirƙirar daular farko.A matsayinsa na farko, Ava ya sami damar shigar da masarautar Taungoo da wasu jihohin Shan karkashin ikonta.Duk da haka, ya kasa samun cikakken iko a kan wasu yankuna, wanda ya haifar da yakin shekaru 40 da Hanthawaddy wanda ya bar Ava ya raunana.Masarautar ta fuskanci tayar da kayar baya daga jihohinta, musamman lokacin da sabon sarki ya hau kan karagar mulki, kuma daga karshe ya fara rasa yankuna, da suka hada da Masarautar Prome da Taungoo, a karshen karni na 15 da farkon karni na 16.Ava ya ci gaba da raunana saboda tsananin hare-hare daga jihohin Shan, wanda ya ƙare a cikin 1527 lokacin da Ƙungiyar Ƙasa ta Shan ta kama Ava.Ƙungiyar ta ɗora wa sarakunan tsana a kan Ava kuma ta yi nasara a kan Upper Burma.Duk da haka, ƙungiyar ta kasa kawar da Masarautar Taungoo, wadda ta kasance mai zaman kanta kuma ta sami iko a hankali.Taungoo, wanda masarautu maƙiya ke kewaye da shi, ya yi nasarar kayar da Masarautar Hanthawaddy mai ƙarfi tsakanin 1534-1541.Da yake mayar da hankalinsa ga Prome da Bagan, Taungoo ya sami nasarar kame waɗannan yankuna, wanda ya ba da damar haɓaka masarautar.A ƙarshe, a cikin Janairu 1555, Sarkin Bayinnaung na daular Taungoo ya ci Ava, wanda ke nuna ƙarshen matsayin Ava a matsayin babban birnin Burma na Burma bayan kusan ƙarni biyu na mulki.
Yakin Shekara Arba'in
Forty Years' War ©Anonymous
1385 Jan 1 - 1423

Yakin Shekara Arba'in

Inwa, Myanmar (Burma)
Yaƙin Shekara Arba'in yaƙin soji ne da aka yi tsakanin Masarautar Ava da ke magana da Burma da Masarautar Hanthawaddy mai magana da Mon.An yi yaƙin ne a lokuta daban-daban: 1385 zuwa 1391, da 1401 zuwa 1424, ta hanyar sasantawa biyu na 1391-1401 da 1403-1408.An yi fama da shi ne a Jahar Lower Burma ta yau da kuma a Upper Burma, Jihar Shan, da Jihar Rakhine.Ya ƙare cikin tsaka mai wuya, yana kiyaye 'yancin kai na Hanthawaddy, da kuma kawo ƙarshen ƙoƙarin Ava na sake gina Masarautar Pagan a da.
Mulkin Mulki
Mrauk U Kingdom ©Anonymous
1429 Feb 1 - Apr 18

Mulkin Mulki

Arakan, Myanmar (Burma)
A cikin 1406, [36] Sojojin Burma daga Masarautar Ava sun mamaye Arakan.Gudanar da Arakan wani bangare ne na Yakin Shekaru Arba'in tsakanin Ava da Hanthawaddy Pegu a yankin kasar Burma.Gudanar da Arakan zai canza hannu sau da yawa kafin sojojin Hanthawaddy su fatattaki sojojin Ava a 1412. Ava zai ci gaba da kasancewa da kafa a arewacin Arakan har zuwa 1416/17 amma bai yi ƙoƙarin sake kwato Arakan ba.Tasirin Hanthawaddy ya ƙare bayan mutuwar Sarki Razadarit a shekara ta 1421. Tsohon sarkin Arakan Min Saw Mon ya sami mafaka a masarautar Bengal kuma ya zauna a Pandua tsawon shekaru 24.Saw Mon ya zama kusa da Sarkin Bengal Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah, yana aiki a matsayin kwamanda a sojojin sarki.Saw Mon ya shawo kan sultan ya taimaka ya mayar da shi kan karagarsa da ya bata.[37]Saw Mon ya sake samun ikon sarautar Arakan a shekara ta 1430 tare da taimakon soja daga kwamandojin Bengali Wali Khan da Sindhi Khan.Daga baya ya kafa wani sabon babban birnin sarauta, Mr.Arakan ta zama jihar vassal ta Bengal Sultanate kuma ta amince da ikon Bengali akan wani yanki na arewacin Arakan.Dangane da martabar masarautarsa, sarakunan Arakan sun sami lakabi na Musulunci, duk da kasancewarsu mabiya addinin Buddah, kuma sun halatta amfani da tsabar dinari na zinariya na Musulunci daga Bengal a cikin masarautar.Sarakunan sun kwatanta kansu da Sarakuna kuma sun dauki Musulmi aiki a manyan mukamai a cikin gwamnatin sarauta.Saw Mon, wanda yanzu aka yi masa suna Suleiman Shah ya rasu a shekara ta 1433, kuma ƙanensa Min Khayi ya gaje shi.Ko da yake an fara shi a matsayin mai kare Bengal Sultanate daga 1429 zuwa 1531, Mrauk-U ya ci gaba da cin nasara a Chittagong tare da taimakon Portuguese.Sau biyu ya kare yunƙurin Toungoo Burma na cin mulkin a 1546-1547, da 1580–1581.A lokacin da yake da tsayin iko, ta ɗan sarrafa bakin tekun Bengal daga Sundarbans zuwa Tekun Martaban daga 1599 zuwa 1603. [38] A cikin 1666, ta rasa ikon Chittagong bayan yaƙi da Daular Mughal .Mulkinsa ya ci gaba har zuwa 1785, lokacin da daular Konbaung ta Burma ta ci ta.Gida ce ga yawan kabilu daban-daban tare da birnin Mrauk U kasancewar gida ne ga masallatai, temples, wuraren ibada, makarantun hauza da dakunan karatu.Masarautar kuma ta kasance cibiyar satar fasaha da cinikin bayi.Larabawa, Danish, Dutch da Portuguese ’yan kasuwa ne suka yi ta zuwa.
1510 - 1752
Yi haƙuriornament
Daular Toungoo ta farko
First Toungoo Empire ©Anonymous
1510 Jan 1 - 1599

Daular Toungoo ta farko

Taungoo, Myanmar (Burma)
Tun daga shekarun 1480, Ava ta fuskanci tawaye na cikin gida da kuma hare-haren waje daga jihohin Shan, kuma ya fara wargajewa.A shekara ta 1510, Taungoo, wanda ke cikin kusurwar kudu maso gabas mai nisa na masarautar Ava, ita ma ta ayyana 'yancin kai.[39] Lokacin da Ƙungiyar Ƙasar Shan ta ci Ava a cikin 1527, 'yan gudun hijira da yawa sun gudu daga kudu maso gabas zuwa Taungoo, wata karamar masarauta mai zaman lafiya, kuma wadda ke kewaye da manyan masarautu masu adawa.Taungoo, karkashin jagorancin sarki Tabinshwehti mai kishi da mataimakinsa janar Bayinnaung, zai ci gaba da hada kananan masarautun da suka wanzu tun bayan faduwar daular Maguzawa, kuma ta sami daula mafi girma a tarihin kudu maso gabashin Asiya.Da farko, masarauta ta farko ta ci Hanthawaddy mafi ƙarfi a cikin Yaƙin Taungoo – Hanthawaddy (1534–41).Taungoo ya koma babban birnin kasar zuwa Bago da aka kwace a shekara ta 1539. Taungoo ya fadada ikonsa zuwa Pagan a shekara ta 1544 amma ya kasa cinye Arakan a 1545-47 da Siam a 1547-49.Magajin Tabinshwehti Bayinnaung ya ci gaba da manufofin fadadawa, inda ya ci Ava a 1555, Jihohin Nearer/Cis-Salween Shan (1557), Lan Na (1558), Manipur (1560), Farther/Trans-Salween Shan Jihohin (1562-63), da Siam (1564, 1569), da Lan Xang (1565-74), kuma ya kawo yawancin yammaci da tsakiyar yankin kudu maso gabashin Asiya a ƙarƙashin mulkinsa.Bayinnaung ya kafa tsarin gudanarwa mai dorewa wanda ya rage ikon sarakunan Shan gado, kuma ya kawo tsarin kwastam na Shan daidai da ka'idodin ƙasa.[40] Amma ba zai iya yin wani ingantaccen tsarin gudanarwa a ko'ina a cikin daularsa mai nisa ba.Daularsa ta kasance sako-sako da tarin tsoffin masarautu, wadanda sarakunansu suka kasance masu aminci gare shi, ba masarautar Taungoo ba.Masarautar da ta wuce gona da iri, wadda abokan huldar abokantaka da abokan ciniki suka hade, ta ragu jim kadan bayan mutuwarsa a shekara ta 1581. Siam ya balle a shekara ta 1584 kuma ya tafi yaki da Burma har zuwa shekara ta 1605. A shekara ta 1597, masarautar ta yi hasarar dukiyoyinta, ciki har da Taungoo. gidan kakanni na daular.A cikin 1599, sojojin Arakan da ke taimaka wa sojojin haya na Portugal, tare da haɗin gwiwa da sojojin Taungoo masu tawaye, sun kori Pegu.Kasar ta fada cikin rudani, inda kowane yanki ke ikirarin sarki.Dan kasar Portugal dan haya Filipe de Brito e Nicote da gaggawa ya yi tawaye ga ubangidansa na Arakan, kuma ya kafa mulkin Burtugal mai goyon bayan Goa a Thanlyin a 1603.Duk da kasancewa lokacin tashin hankali ga Myanmar, fadada Taungoo ya ƙara yawan isa ga al'umma.Sabbin attajirai daga Myanmar sun yi ciniki har zuwa Rajahnate na Cebu a Philippines inda suka sayar da Sugar Burmese (śarkarā) don zinare na Cebuano.[41] Filipinos kuma suna da al'ummomin 'yan kasuwa a Myanmar, masanin tarihi William Henry Scott, yana ambaton rubutun Portuguese Summa Orientalis, ya lura cewa Mottama a Burma (Myanmar) yana da manyan 'yan kasuwa daga Mindanao, Philippines.[42] Lucoes, abokin hamayya ga sauran rukunin Filipino, Mindanaoans, waɗanda a maimakon haka suka fito daga tsibirin Luzon, an kuma ɗauki hayar su a matsayin sojan haya da sojoji na Siam (Thailand) da Burma (Myanmar), a cikin Burma-Siamese. Yaƙe-yaƙe, al'amari iri ɗaya da na Portuguese, waɗanda su ma 'yan amshin shata ne ga ɓangarorin biyu.[43]
Gamayyar Jihohin Shan
Confederation of Shan States ©Anonymous
1527 Jan 1

Gamayyar Jihohin Shan

Mogaung, Myanmar (Burma)
Gamayyar Jihohin Shan rukuni ne na Jihohin Shan da suka ci Masarautar Ava a 1527 suka yi mulkin Upper Burma har zuwa 1555. Ƙungiyar ta ƙunshi Mohnyin, Mogaung, Bhamo, Momeik, da Kale.Sawlon, shugaban Mohnyin ne ya jagorance ta.Ƙungiyar Tarayyar Turai ta kai hari a Babban Burma a farkon karni na 16 (1502-1527) kuma ta yi yaƙi da Ava da ƙawayenta Shan State of Thibaw (Hsipaw).A ƙarshe Confederation ta ci Ava a 1527, kuma ta sanya babban ɗan Sawlon Thohanbwa a kan kursiyin Ava.Thibaw da 'yan rajin sa Nyaungshwe da Mobye su ma sun zo cikin kungiyar.Ƙungiya mai girma ta ba da ikonta zuwa Prome (Pyay) a cikin 1533 ta hanyar cin nasara a zamanin mulkin Prome Kingdom saboda Sawlon yana jin cewa Prome bai ba da isasshen taimako ba a yakin su da Ava.Bayan yakin Prome, ministocinsa sun kashe Sawlon, wanda ya haifar da rashin jagoranci.Ko da yake ɗan Sawlon Thohanbwa a zahiri ya yi ƙoƙari ya ɗauki jagorancin ƙungiyar, ba a taɓa yarda da shi a matsayin na farko a cikin daidai da sauran saophas ba.Ƙungiya marar daidaituwa da aka yi watsi da shi don shiga tsakani a cikin shekaru hudu na farko na Toungoo-Hanthawaddy War (1535-1541) a Lower Burma.Ba su yi godiya da girman yanayin ba har sai 1539 lokacin da Toungoo ya ci Hanthawaddy, kuma ya juya baya ga alkawuran vassal.Saophas a ƙarshe sun haɗu tare kuma suka aika da wani ƙarfi don taimakawa Prome a 1539. Duk da haka, haɗin gwiwar ba su yi nasara ba wajen gudanar da Prome a kan wani harin Toungoo a 1542.A cikin 1543, ministocin Burma sun kashe Thohanbwa kuma suka sanya Hkonmaing, saopha na Thibaw, a kan kursiyin Ava.Shugabannin Mohnyin, karkashin jagorancin Sithu Kyawhtin, sun ji cewa sarautar Ava tasu ce.Amma dangane da barazanar Toungoo, shugabannin Mohnyin sun amince da shugabancin Hkonmaing cikin ɓacin rai.A shekara ta 1543 kungiyar Confederation ta kaddamar da wani babban hari a Lower Burma amma an kori sojojinta.A shekara ta 1544, sojojin Toungoo sun mamaye har zuwa Pagan.Kungiyar ba za ta sake yunkurin wani mamayewa ba.Bayan Hkonmaing ya mutu a shekara ta 1546, dansa Mobye Narapati, saopha na Mobye, ya zama sarkin Ava.Rikicin kungiyar ya koma gaba daya.Sithu Kyawhtin ya kafa 'yan adawa a Sagaing a hayin kogin daga Ava kuma a karshe ya kori Mobye Narapati a shekara ta 1552. Ƙungiyoyin da aka raunana ba su yi daidai da sojojin Toungoo na Bayinnaung ba.Bayinnaung ya kama Ava a shekara ta 1555 kuma ya ci dukan jihohin Shan a jerin kamfen na soji daga 1556 zuwa 1557.
Toungoo – Handwaddy War
Toungoo–Hanthawaddy War ©Anonymous
1534 Nov 1 - 1541 May

Toungoo – Handwaddy War

Irrawaddy River, Myanmar (Burm
Yaƙin Toungoo-Hanthawaddy wani lokaci ne mai ma'ana a cikin tarihin Burma (Myanmar) wanda ya kafa matakin haɓaka da haɓaka daular Toungoo na gaba.Wannan rikici na soji ya kasance yana da jerin gwano, dabaru, da dabarun siyasa na bangarorin biyu.Ɗaya daga cikin abubuwan ban sha'awa na wannan yaƙin shine yadda ƙarami, sabuwar Masarautar Toungoo ta sami nasarar shawo kan Masarautar Hanthawaddy da aka kafa.Haɗin dabarun wayo, gami da bayanan da ba daidai ba, da kuma raunin jagoranci a ɓangaren Hanthawaddy, sun taimaka wa Toungoo wajen cimma manufofinsu.Tabinshwehti da Bayinnaung, manyan jagororin Toungoo, sun baje kolin dabara, da farko ta haifar da sabani tsakanin Hanthawaddy sannan kuma ta kama Pegu.Bugu da ƙari, ƙudirinsu na korar sojojin Hanthawaddy da ke ja da baya da kuma nasarar yaƙin Naungyo ya mayar da hankali a kansu.Sun fahimci wajabcin kawar da karfin sojan Hanthawaddy da sauri kafin su sake haduwa.Juriya ta Martaban, wacce ke da ƙaƙƙarfan tashar jiragen ruwa da kuma taimakon sojojin haya na Portugal [44] , ya ba da babbar cikas.Duk da haka, har ma a nan, sojojin Toungoo sun nuna daidaitawa ta hanyar gina hasumiya na bamboo a kan rafts da kuma amfani da raƙuman wuta yadda ya kamata don kashe jiragen ruwa na Portuguese da ke kare tashar jiragen ruwa.Waɗannan ayyukan suna da mahimmanci don ketare katangar tashar jiragen ruwa, a ƙarshe suna ba da izinin buhu na birni.Nasarar ƙarshe a Martaban ta rufe makomar Hanthawaddy kuma ta faɗaɗa daular Toungoo sosai.Har ila yau, ya kamata a lura da yadda bangarorin biyu suka yi amfani da sojojin haya na kasashen waje, musamman Portuguese , wadanda suka kawo sababbin fasahar yaki kamar bindigogi da bindigogi a cikin rikice-rikice na yanki na kudu maso gabashin Asiya.A taƙaice, yaƙin ya nuna ba wai takara ba ne kawai don mallakar yankuna ba har ma da dambarwar dabaru, tare da jagoranci da ƙirƙira dabara suna taka muhimmiyar rawa a sakamakon.Faduwar Hanthawaddy ya nuna ƙarshen daya daga cikin manyan masarautun bayan Maguzawa [44] , wanda ya baiwa Toungoo damar yin amfani da albarkatun da aka samu don ci gaba da fadadawa, ciki har da sake hadewa da sauran sassan Burma.Wannan yakin don haka yana da matsayi mai mahimmanci a cikin babban labarin tarihin Burma.
Toungoo – Ava War
Bayinnaung ©Kingdom of War (2007).
1538 Nov 1 - 1545 Jan

Toungoo – Ava War

Prome, Myanmar (Burma)
Yaƙin Toungoo-Ava wani rikici ne na soja wanda ya faru a Ƙasar ƙasa da Tsakiyar Burma (Myanmar) a yau tsakanin Daular Toungoo, da Ƙungiyar Ava-Jagorancin Jihohin Shan, Hanthawaddy Pegu, da Arakan (Mrauk-U).Nasarar da Toungoo ta samu ya ba daular farko ta iko da dukkan tsakiyar Burma, kuma ta tabbatar da fitowar ta a matsayin siyasa mafi girma a Burma tun faduwar Daular Maguzawa a 1287. [45]Yaƙin ya fara ne a cikin 1538 lokacin da Ava, ta hanyar Prome vassal, ya ba da goyon bayan Pegu a yakin shekaru hudu tsakanin Toungoo da Pegu.Bayan da sojojinta suka karya shingen Prome a cikin 1539, Ava ta sami abokantaka na Confederation sun amince su shirya yaki, kuma suka kulla kawance da Arakan.[46] Amma rashin daidaituwar ƙawancen ya gaza buɗe gaba na biyu a cikin watanni bakwai na busasshen lokacin 1540-41 lokacin da Toungoo ke ƙoƙarin cin nasara Martaban (Mottama).Ƙungiyoyin sun kasance da farko ba tare da shiri ba lokacin da sojojin Toungoo suka sake sabunta yakin da Prome a watan Nuwamba 1541. Saboda rashin daidaituwa, sojojin Ava-Jagoranci Confederation da Arakan sun kori baya da mafi kyawun sojojin Toungoo a cikin Afrilu 1542, bayan haka sojojin ruwa na Arakanese. wanda tuni ya ɗauki tashar jiragen ruwa na Irrawaddy delta key guda biyu, ya ja da baya.Prome ya mika wuya bayan wata guda.[47] Daga nan yakin ya shiga tsawan watanni 18 inda Arakan ya bar kawancen, kuma Ava ya samu canjin shugabanci mai cike da takaddama.A cikin Disamba 1543, mafi girma sojojin da sojojin ruwa na Ava da Confederation sun sauko don sake dawo da Prome.Amma sojojin Toungoo, wadanda a yanzu sun shigar da sojojin haya na kasashen waje da bindigogi, ba wai kawai sun kori sojojin da suka fi karfin mamayewa ba, har ma sun kwace dukkan Burma ta Tsakiya har zuwa Pagan (Bagan) a watan Afrilu 1544. [48] A cikin lokacin rani na gaba, wani lokacin rani mai zuwa. kananan sojojin Ava sun kai hari zuwa Salin amma manyan sojojin Toungoo sun lalata su.Rashin nasarar da aka yi a jere ya kawo doguwar rashin jituwa tsakanin Ava da Mohnyin na jam'iyyar a kan gaba.Da yake fuskantar tawaye mai tsanani na Mohnyin, Ava a 1545 ya nemi kuma ya amince da yarjejeniyar zaman lafiya tare da Toungoo wanda Ava ya ba da izini ga dukan Burma ta tsakiya tsakanin Pagan da Prome.[49] Tawayen za su mamaye Ava na tsawon shekaru shida masu zuwa yayin da Toungoo mai ƙarfin hali zai mai da hankalinsa ga cin nasarar Arakan a 1545–47, da Siam a 1547–49.
Farkon Burma-Yaƙin Siamese
Sarauniya Suriyothai (tsakiyar) akan giwarta tana sanya kanta tsakanin Sarki Maha Chakkrapat (dama) da Mataimakin Prome (hagu). ©Prince Narisara Nuvadtivongs
1547 Oct 1 - 1549 Feb

Farkon Burma-Yaƙin Siamese

Tenasserim Coast, Myanmar (Bur
Yakin Burma–Siamese (1547 – 1549), wanda kuma aka fi sani da Yaƙin Shwehti, shine yaƙin farko da aka gwabza tsakanin daular Toungoo na Burma da Masarautar Ayutthaya ta Siam, kuma farkon yaƙe-yaƙe na Burma – Siamese wanda zai ci gaba har zuwa tsakiyar karni na 19.Yakin ya yi fice wajen shigar da yakin zamani na farko a yankin.Har ila yau, abu ne sananne a tarihin Thai ga mutuwar a yakin Sarauniyar Siamese Suriyothai a kan giwarta na yaki;Ana yawan kiran rikicin a Tailandia a matsayin yakin da ya kai ga asarar Sarauniya Suriyothai.An bayyana casus belli a matsayin wani yunƙuri na Burma na faɗaɗa yankinsu zuwa gabas bayan rikicin siyasa a Ayutthaya [53] da kuma ƙoƙarin dakatar da kutse na Siamese a gabar Tenasserim na sama.[54 <] > Yaƙin, a cewar Burma, ya fara ne a cikin Janairu 1547 lokacin da sojojin Siamese suka mamaye garin Tavoy (Dawei).Daga baya a cikin shekarar, sojojin Burma karkashin jagorancin Janar Saw Lagun Ein sun sake kwace gabar Tenasserim ta Upper zuwa Tavoy.A shekara ta gaba, a cikin Oktoba 1548, sojojin Burma uku karkashin jagorancin Sarki Tabinshwehti da mataimakinsa Bayinnaung sun mamaye Siam ta hanyar Pagodas Uku.Dakarun Burma sun kutsa har zuwa babban birnin kasar Ayutthaya amma sun kasa kwace birnin mai kagara.Wata daya a cikin kewayen, hare-haren ramuwar gayya na Siamese sun karya shingen, suka kori sojojin mamaya.Amma Burma sun yi shawarwarin zaman lafiya don musanya dawowar wasu manyan sarakunan Siamese guda biyu (magaji Yarima Ramesuan, da Yarima Thammaracha na Phitsanulok) da suka kama.Tsaron da ya yi nasara ya kiyaye 'yancin Siamese na tsawon shekaru 15.Duk da haka, yaƙin bai taka rawar gani ba.
Nasarar Burma na Lan Na
Hotunan Abinda Suwan Ke Jini. ©Mural Paintings
1558 Apr 2

Nasarar Burma na Lan Na

Chiang Mai, Mueang Chiang Mai
Masarautar Lan Na ta zo rikici a kan jihohin Shan da sarkin Burma mai ci, Bayinnaung.Sojojin Bayinnaung sun mamaye Lan Na daga arewa, kuma Mekuti ya mika wuya a ranar 2 ga Afrilu 1558. [50] Setthathirath ya ƙarfafa shi, Mekuti ya yi tawaye a lokacin Yaƙin Burma–Siamese (1563–64).Amma sojojin Burma sun kama sarkin a watan Nuwamba 1564, suka aika zuwa Pegu babban birnin Burma a lokacin.Bayinnaung sai ya sanya Wisutthithewi, Lan Na sarauta, sarauniyar Lan Na.Bayan mutuwarta, Bayinnaung ya nada ɗaya daga cikin 'ya'yansa Nawrahta Minsaw (Noratra Minsosi), mataimakiyar Lan Na a cikin Janairu 1579. [51] Burma ta ba da izinin samun yancin kai ga Lan Na sosai amma tana da iko sosai a kan corvée da haraji.A cikin 1720s, daular Toungoo ta kasance a kan kafafunta na ƙarshe.A cikin 1727, Chiang Mai ya yi tawaye saboda yawan haraji.Dakarun juriya sun kori sojojin Burma a 1727-1728 da 1731-1732, bayan haka Chiang Mai da Ping Valley suka sami 'yanci.[52] Chiang Mai ya sake zama mai mulki a cikin 1757 zuwa sabuwar daular Burma.Ta sake yin tawaye a 1761 tare da ƙarfafawar Siamese amma an danne tawayen a watan Janairu 1763. A cikin 1765, Burmese sun yi amfani da Lan Na a matsayin kushin ƙaddamarwa don mamaye jihohin Laotian, da Siam kanta.
Yaki akan Farar Giwaye
Masarautar Toungoo ta Burmese ta mamaye Ayutthaya. ©Peter Dennis
1563 Jan 1 - 1564

Yaki akan Farar Giwaye

Ayutthaya, Thailand
Yaƙin Burma-Siamese na 1563-1564, wanda kuma aka sani da Yaƙin Farin Giwaye, rikici ne tsakanin Daular Toungoo ta Burma da Masarautar Ayutthaya ta Siam.Sarki Bayinnaung na Daular Toungoo ya nemi ya kawo Masarautar Ayutthaya karkashin mulkinsa, wani bangare na babban burin gina babbar daular kudu maso gabashin Asiya.Bayan da aka fara neman farar giwaye guda biyu daga Ayutthaya Sarki Maha Chakkrapat a matsayin haraji kuma aka ki yarda da shi, Bayinnaung ya mamaye Siam da dakaru mai yawa, inda ya kwace garuruwa da dama kamar Phitsanulok da Sukhothai a kan hanya.Sojojin Burma sun isa Ayutthaya kuma suka fara mamayewa na tsawon makonni, wanda ya sami taimakon kame jiragen ruwan yakin Portugal guda uku.Kawancen bai kai ga kama Ayutthaya ba, amma ya haifar da zaman lafiya a tattaunawar da aka yi kan Siam.Chakkraphat ya amince ya mai da Masarautar Ayutthaya ta zama jihar vassal na Daular Toungoo.A madadin janyewar sojojin Burma, Bayinnaung yayi garkuwa da su, ciki har da Yarima Ramesuan, da kuma wasu giwaye farar fata Siamese guda hudu.Siam ya kuma ba da harajin giwaye da azurfa kowace shekara ga Burma, yayin da ya ba su haƙƙin tattara haraji a tashar jiragen ruwa na Mergui.Yarjejeniyar ta haifar da zaman lafiya na ɗan gajeren lokaci har zuwa tawayen 1568 ta Ayutthaya.Majiyoyin Burma sun ce an mayar da Maha Chakkraphat zuwa Burma kafin a bar shi ya koma Ayutthaya a matsayin zuhudu, yayin da majiyoyin Thai suka ce ya yi murabus daga karagar mulki sannan dansa na biyu Mahinthrathirat ya hau.Yakin ya kasance wani muhimmin al'amari a cikin jerin rikice-rikice tsakanin Burma da Siamese, kuma ya danƙaɗa tasirin daular Toungoo a kan masarautar Ayutthaya na ɗan lokaci.
Yaƙin Nandric
Fada daya tsakanin Sarki Naresuan da Sarkin Burma, Mingyi Swa a yakin Nong Sarai a 1592. ©Anonymous
1584 Jan 1 - 1593

Yaƙin Nandric

Tenasserim Coast, Myanmar (Bur
Yaƙin Burma-Siamese na 1584-1593, wanda kuma aka sani da Yaƙin Nandric, jerin rikice-rikice ne tsakanin Daular Toungoo ta Burma da Masarautar Ayutthaya ta Siam.Yaƙin ya fara ne lokacin da Naresuan, Sarkin Ayutthaya, ya ayyana 'yancin kai daga Burma Suzerainty, yana mai watsi da matsayinsa na vassal.Wannan matakin ya haifar da mamayewar Burma da yawa da nufin murkushe Ayutthaya.Babban mamayewar da yarima Mingyi Swa mai sarauta na Burma ya jagoranta a shekara ta 1593, wanda ya haifar da shahararren giwaye tsakanin Mingyi Swa da Naresuan, inda Naresuan ya kashe basaraken Burma.Bayan mutuwar Mingyi Swa, Burma dole ne ta janye sojojinta, wanda ya haifar da sauyi na karfin iko a yankin.Wannan taron ya kara kwarin gwiwa matuka ga sojojin Siamese kuma ya taimaka wajen tabbatar da matsayin Naresuan a matsayin gwarzo a tarihin Thailand.Ayutthaya ya yi amfani da wannan damar wajen kaddamar da hare-hare, inda ya kwace garuruwa da dama tare da maido da yankin da Burma ya yi a baya.Wadannan nasarorin na soji sun raunana tasirin Burma a yankin da kuma karfafa matsayin Ayutthaya.Yaƙin Burmese-Siamese ya canza ma'auni mai mahimmanci a kudu maso gabashin Asiya.Yayin da ya ƙare ba tare da kayyade ba, rikicin ya raunana tasiri da iko na Burma yayin da yake ƙarfafa 'yancin kai na Ayutthaya da matsayin yanki.Yakin ya shahara musamman ga giwayen duel, wanda wani lamari ne na farko a tarihin Thailand, wanda galibi ana ambatonsa a matsayin alamar jarumtakar kasa da tsayin daka kan mamayewar kasashen waje.Ya kafa fagen fama da rikice-rikice da kuma dangantakar da ke tsakanin masarautun biyu, wanda ya ci gaba har tsawon shekaru aru-aru.
Mamaye Siamese na Burma
Sarki Naresuan ya shiga Pegu da aka watsar a cikin 1600, zanen bangon bango na Phraya Anusatchitrakon, Wat Suwandararam, Ayutthaya. ©Image Attribution forthcoming. Image belongs to the respective owner(s).
1593 Jan 1 - 1600 May

Mamaye Siamese na Burma

Burma
Yaƙin Burmese-Siamese na 1593-1600 ya biyo bayan rikicin 1584-1593 tsakanin ƙasashen biyu.Naresuan, Sarkin Ayutthaya (Siam) ne ya kunna wannan sabon babi, lokacin da ya yanke shawarar yin amfani da al'amuran cikin gida na Burma, musamman mutuwar Yarima Mai Jiran Gado Mingyi Swa.Naresuan ya kaddamar da mamaye Lan Na (Arewacin Thailand a yau), wanda ke karkashin ikon Burma, har ma cikin Burma kanta, tare da ƙoƙarin isa babban birnin Burma na Pegu.Duk da haka, waɗannan kamfen ɗin masu fa'ida ba su yi nasara ba kuma sun yi sanadin asarar rayuka masu yawa daga bangarorin biyu.Yayin da Naresuan ya kasa cimma manufofinsa na farko, ya yi nasarar tabbatar da ’yancin kan masarautarsa ​​tare da maido da wani yanki.Ya gudanar da hare-hare da dama kuma ya yi yaƙe-yaƙe daban-daban, ciki har da kewayen Pegu a shekara ta 1599. Duk da haka, yaƙin neman zaɓe ya kasa ci gaba da ƙwazo.Ba a dauki Pegu ba, kuma dole ne sojojin Siamese su janye saboda al'amuran kayan aiki da kuma annobar da ta barke tsakanin sojojin.Yakin dai ya kare ba tare da wani kwakkwaran nasara ba, amma ya taimaka wajen raunana masarautun biyu, tare da kwashe albarkatunsu da karfinsu.Rikicin 1593-1600 tsakanin Burma da Siam ya sami sakamako mai dorewa.Duk da yake babu wani bangare da zai iya da'awar nasara kai tsaye, yakin ya taimaka wajen tabbatar da 'yancin kai na Ayutthaya daga Burmese suzerainty, kuma ya raunana Masarautar Burmese sosai.Wadannan al'amuran sun kafa hanyar samun rikice-rikice na gaba kuma sun tsara yanayin yanayin siyasa na kudu maso gabashin Asiya.Ana kallon yakin a matsayin ci gaba na gaba da juna na tsawon shekaru aru-aru a tsakanin kasashen biyu, wanda ke da alaka da sauye-sauyen kawance, da burin yanki, da gwagwarmayar neman mamaye yankin.
Masarautar Taungoo da aka mayar
Masarautar Taungoo da aka mayar. ©Kingdom of War (2007)
1599 Jan 1 - 1752

Masarautar Taungoo da aka mayar

Burma
Yayin da tsarin mulkin da ya biyo bayan faduwar Daular Maguzawa ya kasance sama da shekaru 250 (1287-1555), cewa bin faduwar Taungoo ta farko ya kasance ɗan gajeren lokaci.Daya daga cikin ’ya’yan Bayinnaung, Nyaungyan Min, nan da nan ya fara yunkurin sake hadewa, inda ya yi nasarar maido da mulkin tsakiya a Upper Burma da kuma jahohin Shan da ke kusa da shi a shekara ta 1606. Magajinsa Anaukpetlun ya ci Portuguese a Thanlyin a shekara ta 1613. Ya maido da babban tekun Tanintharyi zuwa Dawei da Lan Na. daga Siamese a shekara ta 1614. Ya kuma kama jihohin trans-Salween Shan (Kengtung da Sipsongbanna) a cikin 1622-26.Dan uwansa Thalun ya sake gina kasar da yaki ya daidaita.Ya ba da umarnin ƙidayar jama'a ta farko a tarihin ƙasar Burma a shekara ta 1635, wanda ya nuna cewa masarautar tana da kusan mutane miliyan biyu.A shekara ta 1650, sarakunan nan uku – Nyaungyan, Anaukpetlun, da Thalun – sun sami nasarar sake gina wata ƙaramar masarauta amma mafi nisa.Mafi mahimmanci, sabuwar daular ta ci gaba da samar da tsarin doka da na siyasa wanda ainihin fasalinsa zai ci gaba a karkashin daular Konbaung har zuwa karni na 19.Kambin ya maye gurbin sarakunan gado gaba ɗaya tare da naɗaɗɗen hakimai a duk kwarin Irrawaddy, kuma ya rage haƙƙin gado na sarakunan Shan.Hakanan ya ƙarfafa ci gaba da haɓakar arzikin zuhudu da yancin kai, yana ba da babban tushe na haraji.Cinikinta da gyare-gyaren tsarin mulki na zamani sun gina tattalin arziki mai wadata fiye da shekaru 80.[55] Sai dai wasu 'yan tawaye na lokaci-lokaci da yakin waje - Burma ta ci nasarar Siam na ɗaukar Lan Na da Mottama a cikin 1662-64 - masarautar ta kasance cikin kwanciyar hankali ga sauran ƙarni na 17.Masarautar ta shiga raguwa a hankali, kuma ikon “sarakunan fadar” ya lalace cikin sauri a cikin 1720s.Daga shekara ta 1724 zuwa gaba, mutanen Meitei sun fara kai hari a kogin Chindwin na sama.A cikin 1727, kudancin Lan Na (Chiang Mai) ya yi nasarar yin tawaye, ya bar arewacin Lan Na (Chiang Saen) a ƙarƙashin mulkin Burmese.Hare-haren Meitei ya tsananta a cikin shekarun 1730, inda ya kai ga zurfafa sassan tsakiyar Burma.A cikin 1740, Mon a Lower Burma ya fara tawaye, kuma ya kafa Masarautar Hanthawaddy da aka dawo da shi, kuma a shekara ta 1745 ya mallaki yawancin ƙananan Burma.Siamese kuma sun motsa ikonsu zuwa gabar Tekun Tanintharyi a shekara ta 1752. Hanthawaddy ya mamaye Upper Burma a watan Nuwamba 1751, ya kama Ava a ranar 23 Maris 1752, ya kawo karshen daular Taungoo mai shekaru 266.
Masarautar Hanthawaddy da aka mayar
Jaruman Burma, tsakiyar karni na 18 ©Anonymous
1740 Jan 1 - 1757

Masarautar Hanthawaddy da aka mayar

Bago, Myanmar (Burma)
The Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom ita ce daular da ta yi mulkin Lower Burma da wasu sassan Upper Burma daga 1740 zuwa 1757. Masarautar ta girma ne daga tawaye da Mon ya jagoranci al'ummar Pegu, wanda ya hada da sauran Mon da Delta Bama da Karens na Ƙananan Burma, a kan Daular Toungoo na Ava a cikin Babban Burma.Tawayen sun yi nasarar korar masu biyayya ga Toungoo tare da maido da Masarautar Hanthawaddy mai magana da Month wanda ke mulkin Lower Burma daga 1287 zuwa 1539. Masarautar Hanthawady da aka dawo kuma tana da'awar gado ga Daular Toungoo na farko na Bayinaung wanda babban birninsa ya kasance a Pegu kuma ya ba da tabbacin amincin waɗanda ba na ba. -Wata al'ummar karamar hukumar Burma.Faransawa sun goyi bayansa, daular da ta tashi da sauri ta zana wa kanta sarari a Lower Burma, kuma ta ci gaba da turawa zuwa arewa.A cikin Maris 1752, sojojinta sun kama Ava, kuma sun ƙare daular Toungoo mai shekaru 266.[56]Wata sabuwar daular da ake kira Konbaung karkashin jagorancin Sarki Alaungpaya ta tashi a Upper Burma don kalubalantar sojojin kudu, kuma ta ci gaba da mamaye dukkanin Upper Burma a watan Disamba na 1753. Bayan mamayewar Hanthawaddy na Upper Burma a 1754, masarautar ta sami nasara.Jagorancinta a matakan kawar da kai ya kashe gidan sarautar Toungoo, da kuma tsananta wa 'yan kabilar Burman masu aminci a kudanci, duka biyun sun karfafa hannun Alaungpaya ne kawai.[57 <] > A cikin 1755, Alaungpaya ya mamaye ƙasar Burma ta ƙasa.Sojojin Konbaung sun kwace Irrawaddy delta a watan Mayun 1755, Faransa ta kare tashar jiragen ruwa ta Thanlyin a watan Yuli 1756, sannan a karshe babban birnin kasar Pegu a watan Mayun 1757. Faduwar Hanthawaddy da aka dawo da shi shine farkon karshen mamayar mutanen Mon shekaru aru-aru na Lower Burma. .Rikicin sojojin Konbaung ya tilastawa dubban Mons gudu zuwa Siam.[58 <>] A farkon ƙarni na 19, haɗa kai, auratayya, da ƙaura na iyalai na Burman daga arewa sun rage yawan Mon zuwa ƴan tsiraru.[57]
1752 - 1885
Konbaungornament
Daular Konbaung
Sarki Hsinbyushin na Konbaung Myanmar. ©Anonymous
1752 Jan 1 - 1885

Daular Konbaung

Burma
Daular Konbaung, wacce aka fi sani da Daular Burma ta Uku, [59] ita ce daula ta ƙarshe da ta yi mulkin Burma/Myanmar daga 1752 zuwa 1885. Ya haifar da daula mafi girma ta biyu a tarihin Burma [60] kuma ta ci gaba da gyare-gyaren gudanarwa da Toungoo ya fara. daular, wanda ya kafa harsashin ginin jihar Burma ta zamani.Daular faɗaɗawa, sarakunan Konbaung sun yi yaƙi da Manipur, Arakan, Assam, Mon daular Pegu, Siam (Ayutthaya, Thonburi, Rattanakosin), da daular Qing na kasar Sin - don haka suka kafa daular Burma ta uku.Dangane da yaƙe-yaƙe na baya da yarjejeniyoyin da Birtaniyya , halin yanzu na Myanmar zai iya gano iyakokinta na yanzu zuwa waɗannan abubuwan da suka faru.
Yaƙin Konbaung-Hanthawaddy
Yaƙin Konbaung-Hanthawaddy. ©Kingdom of War (2007)
1752 Apr 20 - 1757 May 6

Yaƙin Konbaung-Hanthawaddy

Burma
Yaƙin Konbaung–Hanthawaddy shine yaƙin da aka yi tsakanin Daular Konbaung da Masarautar Hanthawaddy ta Burma (Myanmar) da aka maido daga 1752 zuwa 1757. Yaƙin shine na ƙarshe na yaƙe-yaƙe da yawa tsakanin arewa masu jin Burma da kudu masu jin Mon wanda ya ƙare. mulkin da mutanen Mon suka yi a kudanci tsawon shekaru aru-aru.[61] Yaƙin ya fara ne a cikin Afrilu 1752 a matsayin ƙungiyoyi masu zaman kansu na juriya da sojojin Hanthawaddy waɗanda suka kawo ƙarshen daular Toungoo.Alaungpaya, wanda ya kafa daular Konbaung, ya fito da sauri a matsayin babban jagoran gwagwarmaya, kuma ta hanyar yin amfani da ƙananan matakan Hanthawaddy, ya ci gaba da cin nasara a dukan Upper Burma a karshen 1753. Hanthawaddy ya kaddamar da cikakken mamayewa a cikin 1754 amma ya ci nasara. fashe.Yaƙin ya ƙara rikidewa zuwa ƙabilanci tsakanin Burman (Bamar) arewa da Mon kudu.Sojojin Konbaung sun mamaye Lower Burma a watan Janairun 1755, inda suka kwace Irrawaddy Delta da Dagon (Yangon) a watan Mayu.Faransa ta kare tashar jiragen ruwa na Siriya (Thanlyin) na tsawon watanni 14 amma daga bisani ya fadi a watan Yulin 1756, wanda ya kawo karshen hannun Faransa a yakin.Faduwar daular kudanci mai shekaru 16 ta biyo baya a watan Mayun 1757 lokacin da aka kori babban birninta Pegu (Bago).Juriyar Mon da ba ta da tsari ta koma Tenasserim (jihar Mon ta yanzu da yankin Tanintharyi) a cikin ƴan shekaru masu zuwa tare da taimakon Siamese amma an kore su ta 1765 lokacin da sojojin Konbaung suka kama tsibirin daga Siamese.Yaƙin ya kasance mai yanke hukunci.Iyalan Burman na kabilanci daga arewa sun fara zama a yankin delta bayan yakin.A farkon karni na 19, haɗuwa da auratayya sun rage yawan jama'ar Mon zuwa ƴan tsiraru.[61]
Fall of Ayoudia
Fall of Ayutthaya City ©Image Attribution forthcoming. Image belongs to the respective owner(s).
1765 Aug 23 - 1767 Apr 7

Fall of Ayoudia

Ayutthaya, Thailand
Yakin Burma-Siamese (1765-1767), wanda kuma aka fi sani da faduwar Ayoudhia shi ne rikicin soja na biyu tsakanin daular Konbaung na Burma (Myanmar) da daular Ban Phlu Luang na daular Ayutthaya ta Siam, da yakin da ya kare. Masarautar Ayutthaya mai shekaru 417.[62] <> Duk da haka, ba da jimawa ba an tilasta wa Burma yin watsi da nasarorin da suka samu a lokacin da China ta mamaye ƙasarsu ta tilasta janyewa gaba ɗaya a ƙarshen 1767. Sabuwar daular Siamese, wadda masarautar Thai ta yanzu ta samo asali. ya fito don sake hade Siam a shekara ta 1771. [63]Wannan yakin shine ci gaba da yakin 1759-60.Kazalika na wannan yaki shi ne iko da gabar Tenasserim da kasuwancinsa, da kuma goyon bayan Siamese ga 'yan tawaye a yankunan iyakar Burma.[64] An fara yakin ne a watan Agustan 1765 lokacin da sojojin arewacin Burma mai dakaru 20,000 suka mamaye arewacin Siam, kuma sojojin kudanci uku na sama da 20,000 suka hade da shi a cikin watan Oktoba, a wani yunkuri na pincer a Ayutthaya.Ya zuwa ƙarshen Janairu 1766, sojojin Burma sun sami nasara a adadi mai yawa amma ba su da tsarin tsaro na Siamese mara kyau, kuma sun haɗu a gaban babban birnin Siamese.[62]An fara killace Ayutthaya ne a lokacin farmakin farko da Sinawa suka yi wa Burma.Siamese sun yi imanin cewa idan za su iya tsayawa har zuwa lokacin damina, ambaliya ta yanayi ta tsakiyar yankin Siamese zai tilasta ja da baya.Amma sarki Hsinbyushin na Burma ya yi imanin cewa yakin China ƙaramin rikici ne na kan iyaka, kuma ya ci gaba da kewaye.A lokacin damina na shekara ta 1766 (Yuni-Oktoba), yakin ya koma ruwa na filin da aka yi ambaliya amma ya kasa canza matsayin.[62 <] > Lokacin da lokacin rani ya zo, Sinawa sun kai hari mafi girma amma Hsinbyushin ya ƙi tunawa da sojojin.A cikin Maris 1767, Sarkin Ekkathat na Siam ya yi tayin zama mai gayya amma Burma ya bukaci mika wuya ba tare da wani sharadi ba.[65] A ranar 7 ga Afrilu 1767, Burma ya kori birnin da ke fama da yunwa a karo na biyu a tarihinta, inda suka aikata ta'addanci da ya bar babban baƙar fata ga dangantakar Burma da Thai zuwa yau.Dubban mutanen Siamese da aka yi garkuwa da su sun koma Burma.Aikin Burma bai daɗe ba.A cikin watan Nuwamba na shekara ta 1767, Sinawa sun sake kai hari tare da mafi yawan sojojinsu, a karshe suka shawo kan Hsinbyushin ya janye sojojinsa daga Siam.A yakin basasa da ya biyo baya a Siam, jihar Siame ta Thonburi karkashin jagorancin Taksin ta samu nasara, inda ta yi galaba a kan sauran jihohin Siamese da suka balle tare da kawar da duk wata barazana ga sabuwar mulkinsa a shekara ta 1771. [66] Burma, duk tsawon lokacin, sun kasance sun kasance a cikin yakin basasa. ya shagaltu da kayar da mamayar kasar Sin ta hudu a Burma a watan Disamba na shekara ta 1769.A lokacin, wani sabon takun saka ya kama.Burma ta mamaye Tekun Tenasserim na ƙasa amma kuma ta kasa kawar da Siam a matsayin mai ɗaukar nauyin tawaye a iyakokinta na gabas da kudanci.A cikin shekaru masu zuwa, Hsinbyushin ya damu da barazanar Sinawa, kuma bai sake sabunta yakin Siamese ba sai 1775 - kawai bayan Lan Na ya sake yin tawaye tare da goyon bayan Siamese.Jagorancin bayan Ayutthaya Siamese, a cikin Thonburi kuma daga baya Rattanakosin (Bangkok), ya tabbatar da abin da ya fi dacewa;sun yi galaba a kan mamayar Burma guda biyu na gaba (1775-1776 da 1785–1786), kuma sun mamaye Lan Na a cikin wannan tsari.
Yakin Qing na Burma
Qing Green Standard Army ©Anonymous
1765 Dec 1 - 1769 Dec 22

Yakin Qing na Burma

Shan State, Myanmar (Burma)
Yakin Sino-Burmese, wanda kuma aka fi sani da mamayewar Qing na Burma ko yakin Myanmar na daular Qing, [67] yaki ne da aka yi tsakanin daular Qing ta kasar Sin da daular Konbaung ta Burma (Myanmar).Kasar Sin karkashin Sarkin Qianlong ta kaddamar da hare-hare hudu a kasar Burma tsakanin shekarun 1765 zuwa 1769, wadanda aka dauke su daya daga cikin manyan yakin neman zabensa guda goma.Duk da haka, yakin, wanda ya yi sanadiyar rayukan sojojin kasar Sin sama da 70,000 da kwamandoji hudu, [68] ] wani lokaci ana kwatanta shi da "yakin kan iyaka mafi muni da daular Qing ta taba yi", [67] da kuma wanda "ya tabbatar wa Burma 'yancin kai". ".[69 <>] Nasarar tsaron da ƙasar Burma ta samu ya kafa harsashin iyaka a yau tsakanin ƙasashen biyu.[68]Da farko, sarkin Qing ya yi hasashen za a yi yaki cikin sauki, kuma ya aika da sojojin Green Standard Army da ke Yunnan kawai.Mamaya na Qing ya zo ne yayin da aka tura yawancin sojojin Burma a sabon farmakin da suka kai a Siam .Duk da haka, sojojin Burma masu taurin kai sun yi galaba a kan mamaya biyu na farko na 1765-1766 da 1766-1767 a kan iyaka.Rikicin yankin a yanzu ya rikide zuwa wani babban yaki wanda ya hada da ayyukan soji a duk fadin kasar a kasashen biyu.Mamaya na uku (1767-1768) karkashin jagorancin jiga-jigan Manchu Bannermen ya kusan yi nasara, ya shiga cikin tsakiyar Burma cikin 'yan kwanaki kadan daga babban birnin kasar, Ava (Inwa).[70] Amma tutocin arewacin kasar Sin ba su iya jure wa yanayin zafi da ba a saba da su ba da cututtuka masu saurin kisa, kuma an kori su da baya da hasara mai yawa.[71 <>] Bayan kiran na kusa, sarki Hsinbyushin ya sake tura sojojinsa daga Siam zuwa gaba na kasar Sin.Mamaye na huɗu kuma mafi girma ya ɓarke ​​a kan iyaka.Tare da kewaye sojojin Qing gaba daya, an cimma matsaya tsakanin kwamandojin bangarorin biyu a watan Disamba na shekara ta 1769. [67]Qing ya ajiye jerin gwanon soji a yankunan kan iyakar Yunnan na kimanin shekaru goma a wani yunƙuri na sake yin wani yaƙi yayin da ya sanya dokar hana kasuwanci tsakanin kan iyaka tsawon shekaru ashirin.[67 <] > Su ma Burma, sun shagaltu da barazanar Sinawa, kuma sun ajiye jerin tsare-tsare a kan iyaka.Shekaru 20 bayan haka, lokacin da Burma da Sin suka sake kulla huldar diflomasiyya a shekarar 1790, Qing bai daya ya kalli aikin a matsayin mika wuya ga Burma, kuma ya yi ikirarin nasara.[67 <] > Daga ƙarshe, manyan waɗanda suka ci moriyar wannan yaƙi su ne Siamese, waɗanda suka kwato mafi yawan yankunansu a cikin shekaru uku masu zuwa bayan sun yi hasarar babban birninsu Ayutthaya ga Burma a 1767. [70.]
Anglo-Burma Wars
Sojojin Burtaniya suna tarwatsa igwa na sojojin King Thibaw, Yakin Anglo-Burmese na Uku, Ava, 27 ga Nuwamba 1885. ©Hooper, Willoughby Wallace
1824 Jan 1 - 1885

Anglo-Burma Wars

Burma
Da yake fuskantarkasar Sin mai karfi a arewa maso gabas da Siam mai tasowa a kudu maso gabas, Sarki Bodawpaya ya juya zuwa yamma don fadadawa.[72] Ya ci Arakan a cikin 1785, ya mamaye Manipur a cikin 1814, kuma ya kama Assam a 1817-1819, wanda ya kai ga iyaka mara kyau daIndiya ta Burtaniya .An bar magajin Bodawpaya Sarki Bagyidaw don ya kawar da tawayen Birtaniya a Manipur a 1819 da Assam a 1821-1822.Hare-haren wuce gona da iri da 'yan tawaye daga yankunan Birtaniya ke karewa da hare-haren wuce gona da iri da Burma suka yi ya kai ga yakin Anglo-Burmese na farko (1824-26).Tsawon shekaru 2 da kashe fam miliyan 13, Yaƙin Anglo-Burmese na farko shine yaƙi mafi tsayi kuma mafi tsada a tarihin Indiyawan Biritaniya, [73] amma ya ƙare da gagarumin nasarar Birtaniyya.Burma ta ba da duk abin da Bodawpaya ya samu na yamma (Arakan, Manipur da Assam) da Tenasserim.An murkushe Burma tsawon shekaru ta hanyar biyan wani babban lamuni na fam miliyan daya (sai dalar Amurka miliyan 5).[74 <] > A cikin 1852, Birtaniya ba tare da izini ba kuma cikin sauƙi sun kwace lardin Pegu a yakin Anglo-Burmese na biyu.Bayan yakin, Sarki Mindon ya yi ƙoƙari ya zamanantar da ƙasar Burma da tattalin arziƙin ƙasar, kuma ya yi yunƙurin yin ciniki da yanki don hana ci gaba da mamayewar Birtaniyya, gami da mikawa Karenni Jihohin Karenni ga Birtaniyya a 1875. Duk da haka, Birtaniyya, sun firgita da haɗin gwiwar Faransanci. Indochina, ya haɗa sauran ƙasar a cikin Yaƙin Anglo-Burmese na Uku a 1885, kuma ya aika da Sarkin Burma na ƙarshe Thibaw da danginsa zuwa gudun hijira a Indiya.
Mulkin Burtaniya a Burma
Zuwan sojojin Burtaniya a Mandalay a ranar 28 ga Nuwamba 1885 a ƙarshen yakin Anglo-Burma na uku. ©Hooper, Willoughby Wallace (1837–1912)
1824 Jan 1 - 1948

Mulkin Burtaniya a Burma

Myanmar (Burma)
Mulkin Birtaniyya a kasar Burma ya shafe ne daga shekara ta 1824 zuwa 1948 kuma ya sha fama da yake-yake da tsayin daka daga kabilu da siyasa daban-daban a kasar ta Burma.An fara mulkin mallaka ne da yakin Anglo-Burmese na farko (1824-1826), wanda ya kai ga hadewar Tenasserim da Arakan.Yakin Anglo-Burmese na Biyu (1852) ya haifar da mulkin Burma na Biritaniya, daga karshe kuma, Yakin Anglo-Burmese na Uku (1885) ya kai ga hade da Burma ta sama da kuma dora masarautar Burma.Biritaniya ta mayar da Burma lardinIndiya a 1886 tare da babban birnin kasar a Rangoon.Al’ummar Burma ta gargajiya ta sami sauye-sauye sosai sakamakon rugujewar masarautu da raba addini da kasa.[75] Ko da yake yaƙi ya ƙare a hukumance bayan makonni biyu kacal, an ci gaba da adawa a arewacin Burma har zuwa 1890, inda a ƙarshe Birtaniyya ta fara lalata ƙauyuka da naɗin sabbin jami'ai don dakatar da duk ayyukan ƴan daba.Yanayin tattalin arzikin al'umma kuma ya canza sosai.Bayan bude mashigar ruwa ta Suez, bukatar shinkafar Burma ta karu kuma an bude filayen noma.Duk da haka, don shirya sabon filin noma, an tilasta wa manoma su ci bashin kuɗi daga masu ba da kuɗi na Indiya da ake kira chettiars a kan farashin riba mai yawa kuma sau da yawa ana hana su tare da korar filayen da dabbobi.Yawancin ayyukan kuma sun tafi ga ma'aikatan Indiya waɗanda ba su da hannu, kuma ƙauyuka gabaɗaya sun zama haramun yayin da suke neman 'dacoity' (fashi da makami).Yayin da tattalin arzikin Burma ya karu, yawancin iko da dukiya sun kasance a hannun kamfanoni da yawa na Biritaniya, mutanen Anglo-Burma, da kuma baƙi daga Indiya.[76] Ma'aikatan gwamnati sun kasance mafi yawan jama'ar Anglo-Burmese da Indiyawa, kuma Bamars an cire su kusan gaba ɗaya daga aikin soja.Mulkin Birtaniyya yana da tasiri mai zurfi na zamantakewa, tattalin arziki, da siyasa a Burma.Ta fuskar tattalin arziki, Burma ta zama yanki mai arzikin albarkatu, inda jarin Birtaniyya ya mayar da hankali kan hakar albarkatun kasa kamar shinkafa, teak, da yakutu.An haɓaka hanyoyin jiragen ƙasa, tsarin telegraph, da tashoshin jiragen ruwa, amma galibi don sauƙaƙe aikin hakar albarkatu maimakon don amfanin al'ummar yankin.A fannin zamantakewa da al'adu, Burtaniya ta aiwatar da dabarun "rarrabuwa da mulki", inda suka fifita wasu tsiraru 'yan tsiraru a kan mafi yawan al'ummar Bamar, lamarin da ya ta'azzara rikicin kabilanci da ya ci tura har yau.An yi wa tsarin ilimi da shari'a kwaskwarima, amma waɗannan sau da yawa ba su amfanar da Birtaniyya da waɗanda ke yin haɗin gwiwa da su ba.
1824 - 1948
Mulkin Biritaniyaornament
Burma Resistance Movement
An kashe wani dan tawayen Burma a Shwebo, Upper Burma, ta Royal Welch Fusiliers. ©Image Attribution forthcoming. Image belongs to the respective owner(s).
1885 Jan 1 - 1892

Burma Resistance Movement

Myanmar (Burma)
Yunkurin juriya na Burma daga 1885 zuwa 1895 ya kasance tashe tashen hankula na tsawon shekaru goma akan mulkin mallaka na Birtaniyya a Burma, bayan mamaye daular da turawan Ingila suka yi a shekarar 1885. An fara turjiya tun bayan kwace Mandalay, babban birnin Burma, da kuma kasar Burma. gudun hijira na Sarki Thibaw, sarkin Burma na ƙarshe.Rikicin ya kunshi dabarun yaki na al'ada da na 'yan daba, kuma masu gwagwarmayar gwagwarmayar sun kasance karkashin jagorancin bangarori daban-daban na kabilanci da na sarakuna, kowannensu yana gudanar da ayyukan kansa da Birtaniya.Wannan yunkuri ya kasance da fitattun fadace-fadace irin su Siege na Minhla, da kuma kare wasu muhimman wurare.Duk da nasarorin da aka samu a cikin gida, tsayin daka na Burma ya fuskanci kalubale masu mahimmanci, ciki har da rashin jagoranci na tsakiya da kuma iyakacin albarkatu.Birtaniyya na da karfin wuta da kungiyar soji, wanda a karshe ya ruguza kungiyoyin 'yan tawaye.Birtaniyya sun yi amfani da dabarar “kwantar da hankali” wacce ta kunshi amfani da ‘yan bindiga na gida wajen tabbatar da tsaro a kauyuka, da tura ginshikan wayar hannu don yin balaguro na ladabtarwa, da bayar da tukuicin kama ko kashe shugabannin gwagwarmaya.A tsakiyar shekarun 1890, gwagwarmayar juriya ta watse sosai, ko da yake za a ci gaba da tayar da zaune tsaye a cikin shekaru masu zuwa.Rashin nasarar da aka samu ya haifar da dawwamar mulkin Birtaniyya a Burma, wanda zai dawwama har zuwa lokacin da kasar ta samu 'yancin kai a shekara ta 1948. Abubuwan da kungiyar ta gada ta yi tasiri mai dorewa a kan kishin kasa na Burma tare da aza harsashin neman 'yancin kai a kasar nan gaba.
Burma a lokacin yakin duniya na biyu
Sojojin Japan a Shwethlyaung Buddha, 1942. ©同盟通信社 - 毎日新聞社
1939 Jan 1 - 1940

Burma a lokacin yakin duniya na biyu

Myanmar (Burma)
A lokacin Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu , Burma ta zama wani muhimmin batu na jayayya.Masu kishin kasar Burma sun rabu kan matsayinsu na yakin.Yayin da wasu ke ganin cewa wata dama ce ta sasantawa daga Birtaniya , wasu, musamman kungiyar Thakin da Aung San, sun nemi cikakken 'yancin kai kuma suna adawa da duk wani nau'i na shiga yakin.Aung San ya kafa Jam'iyyar Kwaminisanci ta Burma (CPB) [77] sannan daga baya Jam'iyyar Juyin Juyin Juya Hali (PRP), daga karshe ta hade tare daJafananci don kafa Rundunar 'Yancin Burma (BIA) lokacin da Japan ta mamaye Bangkok a cikin Disamba 1941.BIA da farko ta sami 'yancin cin gashin kai kuma ta kafa gwamnati ta wucin gadi a sassan Burma a bazarar 1942. Duk da haka, bambance-bambancen ya taso tsakanin shugabannin Japan da BIA game da mulkin Burma na gaba.Jafanawa sun juya zuwa Ba Maw don kafa gwamnati kuma suka sake tsara BIA zuwa Burma Defence Army (BDA), har yanzu a karkashin jagorancin Aung San.Lokacin da Japan ta ayyana Burma "'yancin kai" a 1943, BDA ta sake masa suna Burma National Army (BNA).[77]Yayin da yaƙin ya juya da Japan, ya bayyana a fili ga shugabannin Burma kamar Aung San cewa wa'adin 'yancin kai na gaskiya ba shi da tushe.Cikin rashin kunya sai ya fara aiki da wasu shugabannin Burma don kafa kungiyar Anti-Fascist Organisation (AFO), daga baya aka canza mata suna Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League (AFPFL).[77 <] > Wannan ƙungiya tana adawa da mamayar Jafanawa da farkisanci a duniya baki ɗaya.An kafa hulɗar da ba ta dace ba tsakanin AFO da Birtaniya ta hanyar Force 136, kuma a ranar 27 ga Maris, 1945, BNA ta kaddamar da tawaye ga Jafananci.[77] Daga baya aka yi bikin wannan rana a matsayin 'Ranar Juriya'.Bayan tawaye, Aung San da sauran shugabannin sun shiga cikin kawance a hukumance a matsayin Sojojin Burma na Patriotic (PBF) kuma sun fara tattaunawa da Lord Mountbatten, kwamandan Burtaniya na kudu maso gabashin Asiya.Tasirin mamayar da Japanawa ta yi ya yi tsanani, wanda ya yi sanadin mutuwar fararen hula 170,000 zuwa 250,000 na Burma.[78 <>] Abubuwan da suka faru a lokacin yaƙi sun yi tasiri sosai a fagen siyasa a ƙasar Burma, inda suka kafa fagen yunƙurin samun yancin kai na ƙasar nan gaba da yin shawarwari tare da Birtaniya, wanda ya kai ga samun 'yancin kai a 1948 Burma.
Burma bayan-Independent
Kai Yanzu ©Image Attribution forthcoming. Image belongs to the respective owner(s).
1948 Jan 1 - 1962

Burma bayan-Independent

Myanmar (Burma)
Shekarun farko na 'yancin kai na Burma sun kasance masu cike da rikice-rikice na cikin gida, wanda ya haifar da tashe-tashen hankula daga kungiyoyi daban-daban da suka hada da 'yan gurguzu na Red Flag da Farar Tuta, Sojojin Burma na juyin juya hali, da kuma kabilu irin na Karen National Union.[77] Nasarar gurguzuta China a 1949 kuma ta kai ga Kuomintang ta kafa rundunar soji a Arewacin Burma.[77 <>] A cikin manufofin ketare, Burma ba ta nuna son kai kuma da farko ta karɓi taimakon ƙasashen duniya don sake ginawa.Duk da haka, ci gaba da goyon bayan da Amirka ke baiwa dakarun 'yan kishin kasa na kasar Sin a kasar Burma, ya sa kasar ta ki amincewa da mafi yawan taimakon kasashen waje, da kin zama mamba a cikin kungiyar kudu maso gabashin Asiya ta SEATO, a maimakon haka ta goyi bayan taron Bandung na 1955. [77]A shekara ta 1958, duk da farfadowar tattalin arziki, rashin zaman lafiya na siyasa ya karu saboda rarrabuwar kawuna a cikin kungiyar 'Yancin 'Yancin Jama'ar Anti-Fascist (AFPFL) da kuma halin rashin kwanciyar hankali na majalisar.Firayim Minista U Nu da kyar ya tsira daga kada kuri'ar rashin amincewa, ganin yadda tasirin 'crypto-communists' ke karuwa a cikin 'yan adawa, [77] a karshe ya gayyaci babban hafsan hafsan soji Janar Ne Win ya karbi mulki.[77 <] > Wannan ya kai ga kamawa da korar ɗaruruwan da ake zargin magoya bayan gurguzu, da suka haɗa da manyan ƴan adawa, da kuma rufe fitattun jaridu.[77]Gwamnatin mulkin soja karkashin Ne Win ta yi nasarar daidaita al'amura har ta kai ga gudanar da sabon babban zabe a shekara ta 1960, wanda ya mayar da jam'iyyar U Nu's Union Party.[77] <> Duk da haka, kwanciyar hankali ba ta daɗe ba.Wani yunkuri a cikin Jihar Shan ya yi fatan kafa tarayya ta ‘saukar da’ tare da dagewa kan gwamnati ta mutunta ‘yancin ballewa, wanda aka tanadar a kundin tsarin mulki na 1947.An dauki wannan yunkuri a matsayin 'yan aware, kuma Ne Win ya yi aiki don wargaza ikon shugabannin Shan, ya maye gurbinsu da kudaden fansho, don haka ya kara mayar da ikonsa kan kasar.
1948
Burma mai zaman kantaornament
&#39;Yancin Burma
Ranar 'Yancin Burma.Gwamnan Birtaniyya, Hubert Elvin Rance, da shugaban Burma na farko, Sao Shwe Thaik, sun tsaya a hankali yayin da aka daga tutar kasar a ranar 4 ga Janairu, 1948. ©Anonymous
1948 Jan 4

'Yancin Burma

Myanmar (Burma)
Bayan yakin duniya na biyu da kuma mika wuya naJapan , Burma ta shiga cikin tashin hankali na siyasa.Aung San, shugaban da ya yi kawance da Japanawa amma daga baya ya juya musu baya, yana cikin hadarin fuskantar shari'a kan kisan kai a 1942, amma hukumomin Birtaniyya sun ga hakan ba zai yiwu ba saboda shahararsa.[77] Gwamnan Birtaniya Sir Reginald Dorman-Smith ya koma Burma kuma ya ba da fifikon sake gina jiki akan 'yancin kai, wanda ya haifar da rikici tare da Aung San da Kungiyar 'Yancin 'Yancin Fascist (AFPFL).An samu rarrabuwar kawuna tsakanin AFPFL kanta tsakanin 'yan gurguzu da 'yan gurguzu.Daga baya Dorman-Smith ya maye gurbinsa da Sir Hubert Rance, wanda ya yi nasarar dakile yajin aikin ta hanyar gayyatar Aung San da sauran mambobin AFPFL zuwa Majalisar Zartarwar Gwamna.Majalisar zartarwa a karkashin Rance ta fara tattaunawa don samun 'yancin kai na Burma, wanda ya haifar da yarjejeniyar Aung San-Attlee a ranar 27 ga Janairu, 1947. [77] Duk da haka, wannan ya bar ƙungiyoyin da ke cikin AFPFL ba su gamsu ba, suna tura wasu shiga cikin adawa ko ayyukan karkashin kasa.Har ila yau, Aung San ta yi nasarar shigar da 'yan tsiraru a cikin rukunin ta hanyar taron Panglong da aka yi a ranar 12 ga Fabrairu, 1947, wanda ake bikin ranar tarayya.An tabbatar da farin jinin hukumar ta AFPFL lokacin da ta yi nasara a zaɓen majalisar wakilai na watan Afrilun 1947.Wani bala'i ya afku a ranar 19 ga Yuli, 1947, lokacin da aka kashe Aung San da wasu mambobin majalisar ministocinsa, [77] wani lamari da yanzu ake tunawa da shi a matsayin ranar shahidai.Bayan mutuwarsa, an yi tawaye a yankuna da dama.An nemi Thakin Nu, shugaban gurguzu, ya kafa sabuwar gwamnati kuma ya kula da 'yancin kan Burma a ranar 4 ga Janairu, 1948. Ba kamarIndiya da Pakistan ba, Burma ta zaɓi ba ta shiga cikin Commonwealth of Nations ba, wanda ke nuna tsananin kyamar Birtaniyya a ƙasar. lokacin.[77]
Hanyar Burma zuwa Socialism
Tutar Jam'iyyar Socialist Programme ta Burma ©Image Attribution forthcoming. Image belongs to the respective owner(s).
1962 Jan 1 - 1988

Hanyar Burma zuwa Socialism

Myanmar (Burma)
"Hanyar Burma zuwa Socialism" shiri ne na tattalin arziki da siyasa da aka fara a Burma (yanzu Myanmar) bayan juyin mulkin 1962 karkashin jagorancin Janar Ne Win.Shirin na da nufin mayar da kasar Burma ta zama kasar gurguzu, tare da hada abubuwa na addinin Buddah da kuma Marxism.[81 <>] A ƙarƙashin wannan shirin, majalisar juyin juya halin Musulunci ta mayar da tattalin arzikin ƙasa ƙasa, tare da ɗaukar manyan masana'antu, bankuna, da kasuwancin waje.An maye gurbin kamfanoni masu zaman kansu da hukumomin gwamnati ko ayyukan haɗin gwiwar.Wannan manufar dai ta yanke Burma daga kasuwancin kasa da kasa da kuma zuba jarin kasashen waje, ta yadda kasar za ta iya dogaro da kai.Sakamakon aiwatar da hanyar Burma zuwa gurguzu ya kasance bala'i ga ƙasar.[82] Ƙoƙarin mayar da ƙasa ya haifar da gazawa, cin hanci da rashawa, da tabarbarewar tattalin arziki.Adadin kudaden waje ya ragu, kuma kasar ta fuskanci matsanancin karancin abinci da mai.Yayin da tattalin arzikin kasar ya tabarbare, kasuwannin bakar fata sun bunkasa, kuma yawan jama'a na fuskantar matsanancin talauci.Warewa daga al'ummar duniya ya haifar da koma bayan fasaha da kuma kara rugujewar ababen more rayuwa.Manufar tana da tasiri mai zurfi na zamantakewa da siyasa kuma.Ya saukaka mulkin kama-karya na shekaru da dama a karkashin sojoji, yana murkushe adawar siyasa da tauye 'yancin walwala.Gwamnati ta sanya takunkumi mai tsauri tare da inganta wani nau'i na kishin kasa wanda ya bar yawancin tsirarun kabilun da ake ganin an ware su.Duk da burinta na tabbatar da daidaito da ci gaba, hanyar Burma zuwa gurguzu ta bar kasar cikin talauci da zama saniyar ware, kuma hakan ya ba da gudummawa sosai ga sarkakiya da batutuwan da suka shafi zamantakewa da tattalin arziki da Myanmar ke fuskanta a yau.
1962 juyin mulkin Burma
Rukunin Sojoji akan Titin Shafraz (Titin Banki) kwanaki biyu bayan juyin mulkin Burma na 1962. ©Anonymous
1962 Mar 2

1962 juyin mulkin Burma

Rangoon, Myanmar (Burma)
Juyin mulkin kasar Burma a shekarar 1962 ya faru ne a ranar 2 ga Maris, 1962, karkashin jagorancin Janar Ne Win, wanda ya kwace mulki daga hannun zababben gwamnatin firaminista U Nu.[79 <>] Ne Win ya ba da hujjar juyin mulkin kamar yadda ya zama dole don kiyaye haɗin kan ƙasar, saboda ana tashe tashen ƙabilanci da na gurguzu.Nan da nan bayan juyin mulkin, an kawar da tsarin tarayya, ruguza tsarin mulki, da kafa majalisar juyin juya hali karkashin jagorancin Ne Win.[80] An kama dubban 'yan adawar siyasa, kuma an rufe jami'o'in Burma na tsawon shekaru biyu.Gwamnatin Ne Win ta aiwatar da "Hanyar Burma zuwa Socialism," wanda ya haɗa da mayar da tattalin arzikin ƙasa da yanke kusan dukkanin tasirin waje.Wannan ya haifar da koma bayan tattalin arziki da wahalhalu ga al'ummar Burma, gami da karancin abinci da karancin ababen more rayuwa.Kasar Burma ta zama daya daga cikin kasashen da suka fi fama da talauci da kuma kebe baki daya, inda sojoji ke da iko da dukkan bangarorin al'umma.Duk da wadannan gwagwarmaya, gwamnatin ta ci gaba da mulki tsawon shekaru da dama.Juyin mulkin 1962 ya yi tasiri mai dorewa akan al'ummar Burma da siyasa.Ba wai kawai ya kafa tsarin mulkin soja na shekaru da dama ba, har ma ya kara tsananta rikicin kabilanci a kasar.Ƙungiyoyin tsiraru da yawa sun ji an ware su kuma an ware su daga harkokin siyasa, lamarin da ya haifar da rigingimun ƙabilanci da ke ci gaba da wanzuwa har zuwa yau.Juyin mulkin ya kuma tauye 'yancin siyasa da na jama'a, tare da tsauraran takunkumi kan 'yancin fadin albarkacin baki da taro, wanda ya tsara yanayin siyasar Myanmar (tsohon Burma) na shekaru masu zuwa.
8888 Tashi
Dalibai 8888 masu fafutukar tabbatar da dimokradiyya. ©Image Attribution forthcoming. Image belongs to the respective owner(s).
1986 Mar 12 - 1988 Sep 21

8888 Tashi

Myanmar (Burma)
Rikicin 8888 jerin zanga-zangar ne a duk faɗin ƙasar, [83] maci, da tarzoma [84] a Burma wanda ya kai kololuwa a watan Agustan 1988. Muhimman abubuwan da suka faru sun faru ne a ranar 8 ga Agusta 1988 don haka an fi saninsa da "Tashe ta 8888".[85] An fara zanga-zangar ne a matsayin motsi na dalibai kuma daliban jami'a ne suka shirya su a Jami'ar Rangoon Arts da Kimiyya da Cibiyar Fasaha ta Rangoon (RIT).Dalibai ne suka fara zanga-zangar 8888 a Yangon (Rangoon) a ranar 8 ga Agusta 1988. Zanga-zangar dalibai ta bazu ko'ina cikin kasar.[86] Dubban daruruwan sufaye, yara, daliban jami'a, matan gida, likitoci da sauran jama'a sun yi zanga-zangar adawa da gwamnati.[87] An kawo karshen tashin hankalin a ranar 18 ga Satumba bayan juyin mulkin soja na jini da Majalisar Dokokin Jihar (SLORC) ta yi.Dubban mutane ne aka kashe da sojoji a lokacin wannan bore, [86] yayin da hukumomi a Burma suka ce kimanin mutane 350 ne suka mutu.[88]A lokacin rikicin, Aung San Suu Kyi ta fito a matsayin tambarin kasa.Lokacin da mulkin soja ya shirya zabe a 1990, jam'iyyarta, National League for Democracy, ta lashe kashi 81% na kujerun gwamnati (392 daga cikin 492).[89] <> Amma, gwamnatin mulkin soja ta ƙi amincewa da sakamakon da aka samu kuma ta ci gaba da mulkin ƙasar a matsayin Majalisar Dokokin Jiha.An kuma tsare Aung San Suu Kyi a gidan kaso.Majalisar Dokokin Jiha da Dokar Maido da oda za ta zama canjin kwaskwarima daga Jam'iyyar Socialist Programme ta Burma.[87]
Majalisar zaman lafiya da cigaban Jiha
Membobin SPDC tare da tawagar Thai a ziyarar Oktoba 2010 zuwa Naypyidaw. ©Image Attribution forthcoming. Image belongs to the respective owner(s).
1990 Jan 1 - 2006

Majalisar zaman lafiya da cigaban Jiha

Myanmar (Burma)
A cikin shekarun 1990, gwamnatin mulkin sojan Myanmar ta ci gaba da gudanar da mulki duk da cewa jam'iyyar National League for Democracy (NLD) ta lashe zabukan jam'iyyu da yawa a shekarar 1990. An tsare shugabannin NLD Tin Oo da Aung San Suu Kyi a gidan kaso, kuma sojoji sun fuskanci matsin lamba daga kasashen duniya bayan Suu Kyi ya lashe lambar yabo ta zaman lafiya ta Nobel a shekarar 1991. Ya maye gurbin Saw Maung da Janar Than Shwe a 1992, gwamnatin ta sassauta wasu hani amma ta ci gaba da rike madafun iko, gami da dakatar da yunkurin rubuta sabon kundin tsarin mulki.A tsawon shekaru goma, dole ne gwamnatin ta magance tashe-tashen hankula na kabilanci daban-daban.An yi shawarwarin tsagaita bude wuta da wasu kabilu da dama, ko da yake an gagara samun dorewar zaman lafiya da kabilar Karen.Bugu da ƙari, matsin lamba na Amurka ya haifar da wata yarjejeniya da Khun Sa, jagoran yaƙin opium, a cikin 1995. Duk da waɗannan ƙalubalen, an yi ƙoƙarin sabunta tsarin mulkin soja, ciki har da canza suna zuwa Majalisar Zaman Lafiya da Ci Gaba (SPDC) a 1997 da motsi. Babban birnin daga Yangon zuwa Naypyidaw a 2005.Gwamnati ta sanar da kafa taswirar dimokuradiyya mai matakai bakwai a shekara ta 2003, amma babu wani jadawalin lokaci ko tantancewa, wanda ya haifar da shakku daga masu sa ido na kasa da kasa.An sake zama babban taron kasa a shekara ta 2005 don sake rubuta kundin tsarin mulki amma ba a cikin manyan kungiyoyin masu rajin kare demokradiyya, lamarin da ya kai ga ci gaba da suka.Tauye hakkin bil'adama, gami da aikin tilastawa, ya sa kungiyar Kwadago ta kasa da kasa ta nemi gurfanar da 'yan majalisar mulkin soja da laifin cin zarafin bil'adama a shekara ta 2006. [90]
Cyclone Nargis
Jiragen ruwa da suka lalace bayan Cyclone Nargis ©Image Attribution forthcoming. Image belongs to the respective owner(s).
2008 May 1

Cyclone Nargis

Myanmar (Burma)
A watan Mayun 2008, guguwar Nargis ta afkawa Myanmar, ɗaya daga cikin bala'o'i mafi muni a tarihin ƙasar.Guguwar ta haifar da iskar da ta kai kilomita 215 a cikin sa’a guda kuma ta yi hasarar muni, inda aka kiyasta sama da mutane 130,000 sun mutu ko suka bata da kuma asarar da ta kai dalar Amurka biliyan 12.Duk da bukatar agajin gaggawa, gwamnatin Myanmar mai keɓewa da farko ta hana shigar da taimakon ƙasashen waje, ciki har da jiragen Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya da ke kai muhimman kayayyaki.Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta bayyana wannan jinkirin ba da damar ba da agaji ga kasa da kasa a matsayin "wanda ba a taba ganin irinsa ba."Matakin da gwamnati ta dauka ya jawo kakkausar suka daga hukumomin duniya.Kungiyoyi da kasashe daban-daban sun bukaci Myanmar da ta ba da damar ba da agajin da ba ta da iyaka.Daga karshe dai gwamnatin mulkin sojan kasar ta amince da karbar iyakataccen nau'ikan agaji kamar abinci da magunguna amma ta ci gaba da haramtawa ma'aikatan agaji na kasashen waje ko sassan soji a kasar.Wannan jinkirin ya haifar da zargin gwamnatin da ta haifar da "mummunan bala'i da mutum ya yi" da kuma yiwuwar aikata laifuka ga bil'adama.Ya zuwa ranar 19 ga watan Mayu, Myanmar ta ba da izinin ba da agaji daga Ƙungiyar Ƙungiyoyin Kudu maso Gabashin Asiya (ASEAN) kuma daga bisani ta amince da barin duk ma'aikatan agaji, ba tare da la'akari da kasar ba, shiga cikin kasar ba.Duk da haka, gwamnati ta kasance mai juriya ga kasancewar rundunonin sojan kasashen waje.An tilastawa wani jirgin dakon kaya na Amurka da ke cike da kayan agaji barin wajen bayan an hana shi shiga.Sabanin sukar da kasashen duniya ke yi, gwamnatin Burma daga baya ta yaba da taimakon da Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta bayar, ko da yake rahotanni sun kuma bayyana na tallafin da sojoji ke yi na cinikin kwadago.
Gyaran Siyasar Myanmar
Aung San Suu Kyi tana jawabi ga jama'a a hedikwatar NLD jim kadan bayan sakinta. ©Htoo Tay Zar
2011 Jan 1 - 2015

Gyaran Siyasar Myanmar

Myanmar (Burma)
Sauye-sauyen dimokuradiyyar Burma na 2011-2012 jerin sauye-sauyen siyasa, tattalin arziki da gudanarwa ne a Burma wanda gwamnatin soja ke marawa baya.Wadannan sauye-sauyen sun hada da sakin shugabar masu rajin kare demokradiyya Aung San Suu Kyi daga gidan yari da kuma tattaunawa da ita da kafa hukumar kare hakkin dan Adam ta kasa, afuwa ga fursunonin siyasa sama da 200, kafa sabbin dokokin kwadago da suka bai wa kungiyoyin kwadago dama da kuma yajin aiki, annashuwa game da cece-kucen manema labarai, da kuma ka'idojin ayyukan kudi.Sakamakon sauye-sauyen, ASEAN ta amince da bukatar Burma na neman shugabancin kasar a shekarar 2014. Sakatariyar harkokin wajen Amurka Hillary Clinton ta ziyarci Burma a ranar 1 ga Disamba 2011, domin karfafa ci gaba;Wannan ita ce ziyarar farko da sakataren harkokin wajen Amurka ya kai sama da shekaru hamsin.Shugaban Amurka Barack Obama ya kai ziyara shekara guda bayan ya zama shugaban Amurka na farko da ya ziyarci kasar.Jam'iyyar Suu Kyi, ta National League for Democracy, ta shiga zaben fidda gwani da aka gudanar a ranar 1 ga Afrilun 2012 bayan da gwamnati ta soke dokokin da suka kai ga kauracewa zaben 2010 da jam'iyyar NLD ta yi.Ita ce ta jagoranci jam'iyyar NLD ta lashe zaben da aka gudanar da gagarumin rinjaye, inda ta samu kujeru 41 cikin 44 da aka fafata, yayin da Suu Kyi da kanta ta samu kujerar mai wakiltar mazabar Kawhmu a majalisar dokokin Burma.Sakamakon zaben shekarar 2015 ya baiwa jam'iyyar National League for Democracy damar samun cikakken kujeru a majalisun dokokin kasar Burma, wanda ya isa ya tabbatar da cewa dan takararta zai zama shugaban kasa, yayin da shugabar jam'iyyar NLD, Aung San Suu Kyi, bisa tsarin mulkin kasar ta haramtawa zama shugaban kasa.[91 <] > Sai dai an ci gaba da gwabza faɗa tsakanin sojojin Burma da ƙungiyoyin tawaye na cikin gida.
Kisan kare dangi na Rohingya
'Yan gudun hijirar Rohingya a sansanin 'yan gudun hijira a Bangladesh, 2017 ©Image Attribution forthcoming. Image belongs to the respective owner(s).
2016 Oct 9 - 2017 Aug 25

Kisan kare dangi na Rohingya

Rakhine State, Myanmar (Burma)
Kisan kare dangi na Rohingya wani jerin cin zarafi ne da kisan gilla da sojojin Myanmar ke yi wa al'ummar musulmin Rohingya.Kisan gillar ya ƙunshi matakai guda biyu [92] zuwa yau: na farko shi ne harin soja da ya faru daga Oktoba 2016 zuwa Janairu 2017, kuma na biyu yana faruwa tun Agusta 2017. [93] Rikicin ya tilasta wa 'yan Rohingya fiye da miliyan gudu. zuwa wasu kasashe.Yawancinsu sun yi gudun hijira zuwa Bangladesh, lamarin da ya haifar da kafa sansanin ‘yan gudun hijira mafi girma a duniya, yayin da wasu suka tsere zuwaIndiya , Thailand , Malaysia , da sauran sassan kudu da kudu maso gabashin Asiya, inda suke ci gaba da fuskantar zalunci.Wasu ƙasashe da yawa suna kiran abubuwan da suka faru a matsayin "tsarkake kabilanci".[94]Ana ci gaba da zaluntar Musulman Rohingya a Myanmar tun a kalla a shekarun 1970.[95] Tun daga wannan lokacin, gwamnati da 'yan kishin addinin Buddah na ci gaba da tsananta wa al'ummar Rohingya akai-akai.[96] <> A ƙarshen 2016, sojojin Myanmar da 'yan sanda sun kaddamar da wani gagarumin farmaki kan al'ummar jihar Rakhine da ke yankin arewa maso yammacin ƙasar.Majalisar Dinkin Duniya [97] ta sami shaidar cin zarafi mai yawa na take hakkin dan Adam, gami da kisan gilla;taƙaitaccen hukuncin kisa;fyade na ƙungiyoyi;kona kauyukan Rohingya, kasuwanci, da makarantu;da kashe jarirai.Gwamnatin Burma ta yi watsi da wadannan binciken ta hanyar bayyana cewa "cikakkun bayanai ne".[98]Ayyukan sojojin sun raba mutane da dama da muhallansu, lamarin da ya janyo rikicin 'yan gudun hijira.Guguwar mafi girma na 'yan gudun hijirar Rohingya sun tsere daga Myanmar a cikin 2017, wanda ya haifar da gudun hijira mafi girma a Asiya tun bayan yakin Vietnam .[99] A cewar rahotannin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya, sama da mutane 700,000 sun gudu ko kuma aka kore su daga Jihar Rakhine, kuma suka sami mafaka a makwabciyarta Bangladesh a matsayin 'yan gudun hijira har zuwa watan Satumba na 2018. A watan Disamba 2017, an kama wasu 'yan jarida biyu na Reuters da ke ba da rahoto game da kisan kiyashin Inn Din. daure.Sakataren harkokin wajen Myanmar Myint Thu ya shaidawa manema labarai cewa Myanmar ta shirya karbar 'yan gudun hijirar Rohingya 2,000 daga sansanonin Bangladesh a watan Nuwamba 2018. [100] Bayan haka, a cikin Nuwamba 2017, gwamnatocin Bangladesh da Myanmar sun sanya hannu kan wata yarjejeniya don sauƙaƙe komawar 'yan gudun hijirar Rohingya zuwa jihar Rakhine. a cikin watanni biyu, wanda ya haifar da martani iri-iri daga masu kallon duniya.[101]Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta yi Allah wadai da harin da sojoji suka kai kan al'ummar Rohingya a shekarar 2016 (wanda ya yi nuni da yiwuwar "laifi kan bil'adama"), kungiyar kare hakkin bil'adama ta Amnesty International, Ma'aikatar Harkokin Wajen Amurka, gwamnatin Bangladesh da ke makwabtaka da ita, da kuma gwamnatin Malaysia.An soki shugabar Burma kuma mai ba da shawara ta Jiha (shugaban gwamnati) da kuma mai lambar yabo ta zaman lafiya ta Nobel Aung San Suu Kyi saboda rashin aiki da shiru kan batun kuma ba ta yi wani abu ba don hana cin zarafin sojoji.[102]
Juyin mulkin Myanmar 2021
Malamai suna zanga-zanga a Hpa-An, babban birnin jihar Kayin (9 Fabrairu 2021) ©Image Attribution forthcoming. Image belongs to the respective owner(s).
2021 Feb 1

Juyin mulkin Myanmar 2021

Myanmar (Burma)
An fara juyin mulki a Myanmar da safiyar ranar 1 ga watan Fabrairun 2021, lokacin da ‘yan Tatmadaw—sojojin Myanmar suka hambarar da zababbiyar jam’iyya mai mulki ta Dimokiradiyya ta NLD. mulkin soja.Mukaddashin shugaban kasar Myint Swe ya ayyana dokar ta-baci ta tsawon shekara guda tare da ayyana ikonta zuwa ga babban kwamandan rundunar tsaro Min Aung Hlaing.Ta bayyana sakamakon zaben watan Nuwamba 2020 a matsayin mara inganci tare da bayyana aniyar ta na gudanar da sabon zabe a karshen dokar ta baci.[103] An yi juyin mulkin washegarin ranar da majalisar dokokin Myanmar za ta rantsar da mambobin da aka zaba a zaben 2020, ta yadda hakan ya hana faruwar hakan.[104] An tsare Shugaba Win Myint da mai ba da shawara na Jiha Aung San Suu Kyi, tare da ministoci, mataimakan su, da 'yan majalisa.[105]A ranar 3 ga Fabrairu 2021, an tuhumi Win Myint da keta ƙa'idodin yaƙin neman zaɓe da ƙuntatawa na COVID-19 a ƙarƙashin sashe na 25 na Dokar Kula da Bala'i.An tuhumi Aung San Suu Kyi da keta dokokin COVID-19 na gaggawa da kuma shigo da kayan rediyo da na'urorin sadarwa ba bisa ka'ida ba, musamman na'urorin ICOM guda shida daga rukunin jami'anta na jami'an tsaro da kuma na'urar magana, wadanda ke iyakance a Myanmar kuma suna buƙatar izini daga masu alaƙa da sojoji. hukumomi kafin a samu.[106 <] > An tsare su a gidan yari na tsawon makonni biyu.[107] Aung San Suu Kyi ta sami ƙarin cajin laifi don karya dokar bala'i ta ƙasa a ranar 16 ga Fabrairu, [108] ƙarin tuhume-tuhume biyu na keta dokokin sadarwa da niyyar tada fitinar jama'a a ranar 1 ga Maris da wani don keta dokar sirrin hukuma. ranar 1 ga Afrilu.[109]Rikici dauke da makamai daga dakarun gwamnatin hadin kan kasa ya barke a duk fadin kasar Myanmar a matsayin martani ga matakin da gwamnatin sojin kasar ta dauka na murkushe masu zanga-zangar kin jinin gwamnati.[110] Tun daga ranar 29 ga Maris 2022, aƙalla farar hula 1,719, gami da yara, sojojin mulkin soja sun kashe kuma an kama 9,984.[111] Wasu fitattun mambobin NLD guda uku suma sun mutu yayin da suke hannun 'yan sanda a watan Maris 2021, [112] da masu fafutukar tabbatar da dimokaradiyya hudu a watan Yulin 2022. [113]
Yakin basasar Myanmar
Rundunar Sojojin Myanmar. ©Image Attribution forthcoming. Image belongs to the respective owner(s).
2021 May 5

Yakin basasar Myanmar

Myanmar (Burma)
Yakin basasar Myanmar dai wani yakin basasa ne da ke ci gaba da gudana bayan tashe tashen hankulan da aka dade a kasar Myanmar wanda ya yi kamari sosai sakamakon juyin mulkin da sojoji suka yi a shekara ta 2021 da kuma murkushe masu zanga-zangar kin jinin gwamnatinsa.[114 <>] A cikin watannin da suka biyo bayan juyin mulkin, ’yan adawa sun fara haɗa kai da gwamnatin haɗin kan ƙasa, wadda ta kai farmaki kan gwamnatin mulkin soja.Nan da 2022, 'yan adawa sun mallaki yanki mai yawa, kodayake ba su da yawa.[115 <>] A ƙauyuka da garuruwa da dama, hare-haren da sojojin mulkin soja suka yi ya kori dubunnan mutane.A bikin cika biyu na juyin mulkin, a watan Fabrairun 2023, shugaban majalisar gudanarwar jihar, Min Aung Hlaing, ya amince cewa ya rasa kwanciyar hankali a kan "fiye da kashi uku" na garuruwa.Masu sa ido masu zaman kansu sun lura cewa adadin na iya zama mafi girma, yayin da kusan 72 daga cikin garuruwa 330 da duk manyan cibiyoyin jama'a da suka rage a karkashin kulawar tsaro.[116]Ya zuwa watan Satumba na 2022, mutane miliyan 1.3 ne suka rasa matsugunansu, kuma an kashe sama da yara 13,000.Ya zuwa watan Maris din shekarar 2023, MDD ta yi kiyasin cewa, tun bayan juyin mulkin, mutane miliyan 17.6 a Myanmar na bukatar agajin jin kai, yayin da miliyan 1.6 suka rasa matsugunansu, kana an lalata gine-ginen farar hula 55,000.UNOCHA ta ce sama da mutane 40,000 ne suka tsere zuwa kasashe makwabta.[117]
A Quiz is available for this HistoryMap.

Appendices



APPENDIX 1

Myanmar's Geographic Challenge


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APPENDIX 2

Burmese War Elephants: the Culture, Structure and Training


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APPENDIX 3

Burmese War Elephants: Military Analysis & Battlefield Performance


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APPENDIX 4

Wars and Warriors: Royal Burmese Armies: Introduction and Structure


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APPENDIX 5

Wars and Warriors: The Burmese Praetorians: The Royal Household Guards


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APPENDIX 6

Wars and Warriors: The Ahmudan System: The Burmese Royal Militia


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APPENDIX 7

The Myin Knights: The Forgotten History of the Burmese Cavalry


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Footnotes



  1. Cooler, Richard M. (2002). "Prehistoric and Animist Periods". Northern Illinois University, Chapter 1.
  2. Myint-U, Thant (2006). The River of Lost Footsteps—Histories of Burma. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-16342-6, p. 45.
  3. Hudson, Bob (March 2005), "A Pyu Homeland in the Samon Valley: a new theory of the origins of Myanmar's early urban system", Myanmar Historical Commission Golden Jubilee International Conference, p. 1.
  4. Hall, D.G.E. (1960). Burma (3rd ed.). Hutchinson University Library. ISBN 978-1-4067-3503-1, p. 8–10.
  5. Moore, Elizabeth H. (2007). Early Landscapes of Myanmar. Bangkok: River Books. ISBN 978-974-9863-31-2, p. 236.
  6. Aung Thaw (1969). "The 'neolithic' culture of the Padah-Lin Caves" (PDF). The Journal of Burma Research Society. The Burma Research Society. 52, p. 16.
  7. Lieberman, Victor B. (2003). Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, volume 1, Integration on the Mainland. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80496-7, p. 114–115.
  8. Hall, D.G.E. (1960). Burma (3rd ed.). Hutchinson University Library. ISBN 978-1-4067-3503-1, p. 8-10.
  9. Moore, Elizabeth H. (2007). Early Landscapes of Myanmar. Bangkok: River Books. ISBN 978-974-9863-31-2, p.236.
  10. Hall 1960, p. 8–10.
  11. Myint-U, Thant (2006). The River of Lost Footsteps—Histories of Burma. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-16342-6. p. 51–52.
  12. Jenny, Mathias (2015). "Foreign Influence in the Burmese Language" (PDF). p. 2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 March 2023.
  13. Luce, G. H.; et al. (1939). "Burma through the fall of Pagan: an outline, part 1" (PDF). Journal of the Burma Research Society. 29, p. 264–282.
  14. Myint-U 2006, p. 51–52.
  15. Coedès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.). The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-0368-1, p. 63, 76–77.
  16. Coedès 1968, p. 208.
  17. Htin Aung, Maung (1967). A History of Burma. New York and London: Cambridge University Press, p. 32–33.
  18. South, Ashley (2003). Mon nationalism and civil war in Burma: the golden sheldrake. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7007-1609-8, p. 67.
  19. Harvey, G. E. (1925). History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd., p. 307.
  20. Lieberman, Victor B. (2003). Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, volume 1, Integration on the Mainland. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80496-7, p. 91.
  21. Aung-Thwin, Michael (2005). The Mists of Rāmañña: the Legend that was Lower Burma. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2886-8, p. 167–178, 197–200.
  22. Lieberman 2003, p. 88–123.
  23. Lieberman 2003, p. 90–91, 94.
  24. Lieberman 2003, p. 24.
  25. Lieberman 2003, p. 92–97.
  26. Lieberman 2003, p. 119–120.
  27. Coedès, George (1968), p. 205–206, 209 .
  28. Htin Aung 1967, p. 78–80.
  29. Myint-U 2006, p. 64–65.
  30. Historical Studies of the Tai Yai: A Brief Sketch in Lak Chang: A Reconstruction of Tai Identity in Daikong by Yos Santasombat
  31. Nisbet, John (2005). Burma under British Rule - and before. Volume 2. Adamant Media Corporation. p. 414. ISBN 1-4021-5293-0.
  32. Maung Htin Aung (1967). A History of Burma. New York and London: Cambridge University Press. p. 66.
  33. Jon Fernquest (Autumn 2005). "Min-gyi-nyo, the Shan Invasions of Ava (1524–27), and the Beginnings of Expansionary Warfare in Toungoo Burma: 1486–1539". SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research. 3 (2). ISSN 1479-8484.
  34. Williams, Benjamin (25 January 2021). "Ancient Vesali: Second Capital of the Rakhine Kingdom". Paths Unwritten.
  35. Ba Tha (Buthidaung) (November 1964). "The Early Hindus and Tibeto-Burmans in Arakan. A brief study of Hindu civilization and the origin of the Arakanese race" (PDF).
  36. William J. Topich; Keith A. Leitich (9 January 2013). The History of Myanmar. ABC-CLIO. pp. 17–22. ISBN 978-0-313-35725-1.
  37. Sandamala Linkara, Ashin (1931). Rakhine Yazawinthit Kyan (in Burmese). Yangon: Tetlan Sarpay. Vol. 2, p. 11.
  38. William J. Topich; Keith A. Leitich (9 January 2013). The History of Myanmar. ABC-CLIO. pp. 17–22. ISBN 978-0-313-35725-1.
  39. Fernquest, Jon (Autumn 2005). "Min-gyi-nyo, the Shan Invasions of Ava (1524–27), and the Beginnings of Expansionary Warfare in Toungoo Burma: 1486–1539". SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research. 3 (2). ISSN 1479-8484, p.25-50.
  40. Htin Aung 1967, p. 117–118.
  41. Santarita, J. B. (2018). Panyupayana: The Emergence of Hindu Polities in the Pre-Islamic Philippines. Cultural and Civilisational Links Between India and Southeast Asia, 93–105.
  42. Scott, William Henry (1989). "The Mediterranean Connection". Philippine Studies. 37 (2), p. 131–144.
  43. Pires, Tomé (1944). Armando Cortesao (translator) (ed.). A suma oriental de Tomé Pires e o livro de Francisco Rodriguez: Leitura e notas de Armando Cortesão [1512 - 1515] (in Portuguese). Cambridge: Hakluyt Society.
  44. Harvey 1925, p. 153–157.
  45. Aung-Thwin, Michael A.; Maitrii Aung-Thwin (2012). A History of Myanmar Since Ancient Times (illustrated ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-1-86189-901-9, p. 130–132.
  46. Royal Historical Commission of Burma (1832). Hmannan Yazawin (in Burmese). Vol. 1–3 (2003 ed.). Yangon: Ministry of Information, Myanmar, p. 195.
  47. Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 204–213
  48. Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 216–222
  49. Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 148–149
  50. Wyatt, David K. (2003). Thailand: A Short History (2nd ed.). ISBN 978-0-300-08475-7., p. 80.
  51. Hmannan, Vol. 3, p. 48
  52. Hmannan, Vol. 3, p. 363
  53. Wood, William A. R. (1924). History of Siam. Thailand: Chalermit Press. ISBN 1-931541-10-8, p. 112.
  54. Phayre, Lt. Gen. Sir Arthur P. (1883). History of Burma (1967 ed.). London: Susil Gupta, p. 100.
  55. Liberman 2003, p. 158–164.
  56. Harvey (1925), p. 211–217.
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