Christian Denominations Family Tree | Episode 1: Origins & Early Schisms

Christian Denominations Family Tree | Episode 2: Roman Catholic & Eastern Orthodox Churches

Introduction to the Bible (from an academic point of view)

The Christian Church Explained in 12 Minutes

Catholic vs Orthodox - What is the Difference Between Religions?

Early Christian Schisms - How the Modern Church was Formed

The history of Christianity concerns the Christian religion, Christian countries, and the Christians with their various denominations, from the 1st century to the present. Christianity originated with the ministry of Jesus, a Jewish teacher and healer who proclaimed the imminent Kingdom of God and was crucified c. AD 30–33 in Jerusalem in the Roman province of Judea. His followers believe that, according to the Gospels, he was the Son of God and that he died for the forgiveness of sins and was raised from the dead and exalted by God, and will return soon at the inception of God's kingdom.

Early Christianity

The Apostolic Age is named after the Apostles and their missionary activities. It holds special significance in Christian tradition as the age of the direct apostles of Jesus. A primary source for the Apostolic Age is the Acts of the Apostles, but its historical accuracy has been debated and its coverage is partial, focusing especially from Acts 15 onwards on the ministry of Paul, and ending around 62 CE with Paul preaching in Rome under house arrest.The earliest followers of Jesus were a sect of apocalyptic Jewish Christians within the realm of Second Temple <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Judaism' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Judaism</a>. The early Christian groups were strictly Jewish, such as the Ebionites, and the early Christian community in Jerusalem, led by James the Just, brother of Jesus. According to Acts 9, they described themselves as 'disciples of the Lord' and 'of the Way', and according to Acts 11, a settled community of disciples at Antioch were the first to be called 'Christians'. Some of the early Christian communities attracted God-fearers, i.e. Greco-Roman sympathizers which made an allegiance to Judaism but refused to convert and therefore retained their Gentile (non-Jewish) status, who already visited Jewish synagogues. The inclusion of Gentiles posed a problem, as they could not fully observe the Halakha. Saul of Tarsus, commonly known as Paul the Apostle, persecuted the early Jewish Christians, then converted and started his mission among the Gentiles. The main concern of Paul's letters is the inclusion of Gentiles into God's New Covenant, sending the message that faith in Christ is sufficient for salvation. Because of this inclusion of Gentiles, early Christianity changed its character and gradually grew apart from Judaism and Jewish Christianity during the first two centuries of the Christian Era. The fourth-century church fathers Eusebius and Epiphanius of Salamis cite a tradition that before the destruction of Jerusalem in CE 70 the Jerusalem Christians had been miraculously warned to flee to Pella in the region of the Decapolis across the Jordan River.The Gospels and New Testament epistles contain early creeds and hymns, as well as accounts of the Passion, the empty tomb, and Resurrection appearances. Early Christianity spread to pockets of believers among Aramaic-speaking peoples along the Mediterranean coast and also to the inland parts of the Roman Empire and beyond, into the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Parthian-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Parthian Empire</a> and the later <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Sasanian-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Sasanian Empire</a>, including <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Iraq' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Mesopotamia</a>, which was dominated at different times and to varying extent by these empires.

Apostolic Age

Christianity in the ante-Nicene period was the time in Christian history up to the First Council of Nicaea. The second and third centuries saw a sharp divorce of Christianity from its early roots. There was an explicit rejection of then-modern <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Judaism' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Judaism</a> and Jewish culture by the end of the second century, with a growing body of adversus Judaeos literature. Fourth- and fifth-century Christianity experienced pressure from the government of the Roman Empire and developed strong episcopal and unifying structure. The ante-Nicene period was without such authority and was more diverse.The Ante-Nicene period saw the rise of a great number of Christian sects, cults, and movements with strong unifying characteristics which were lacking in the apostolic period. They had different interpretations of the Bible, particularly regarding theological doctrines such as the divinity of Jesus and the nature of the Trinity. One variation was proto-orthodoxy which became the international Great Church and in this period was defended by the Apostolic Fathers. This was the tradition of Pauline Christianity, which placed importance on the death of Jesus as saving humanity, and described Jesus as God come to Earth. Another major school of thought was Gnostic Christianity, which placed importance on the wisdom of Jesus saving humanity, and described Jesus as a human who became divine through knowledge.The Pauline epistles were circulating in collected form by the end of the 1st century. By the early 3rd century, there existed a set of Christian writings similar to the current New Testament, though there were still disputes over the canonicity of Hebrews, James, I Peter, I and II John, and Revelation.There was no empire-wide persecution of Christians until the reign of Decius in the 3rd century. The Kingdom of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Armenia' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Armenia</a> became the first country in the world to establish Christianity as its state religion when, in an event traditionally dated to the year 301, Gregory the Illuminator convinced Tiridates III, the King of Armenia, to convert to Christianity.

Ante-Nicene period

Tensions in Christian unity started to become evident in the 4th century. Two basic problems were involved: the nature of the primacy of the bishop of Rome and the theological implications of adding a clause to the Nicene Creed, known as the filioque clause. These doctrinal issues were first openly discussed in Photius's patriarchate. The Eastern churches viewed Rome's understanding of the nature of episcopal power as being in direct opposition to the Church's essentially conciliar structure and thus saw the two ecclesiologies as mutually antithetical.Another issue developed into a major irritant to Eastern Christendom, the gradual introduction into the Nicene Creed in the West of the Filioque clause – meaning 'and the Son' – as in 'the Holy Spirit ... proceeds from the Father and the Son', where the original Creed, sanctioned by the councils and still used today by the Eastern Orthodox, simply states 'the Holy Spirit, ... proceeds from the Father.' The Eastern Church argued that the phrase had been added unilaterally and therefore illegitimately, since the East had never been consulted. In addition to this ecclesiological issue, the Eastern Church also considered the Filioque clause unacceptable on dogmatic grounds.

East and West tension

An increasingly popular Nontrinitarian Christological doctrine that spread throughout the Roman Empire from the 4th century onwards was Arianism, founded by the Christian presbyter Arius from Alexandria, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Egypt' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Egypt</a>, which taught that Jesus Christ is a creature distinct from and subordinate to God the Father. Arian theology holds that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, who was begotten by God the Father with the difference that the Son of God did not always exist but was begotten within time by God the Father, therefore Jesus was not co-eternal with God the Father.Although the Arian doctrine was condemned as heresy and eventually eliminated by the State church of the Roman Empire, it remained popular underground for some time. In the late 4th century, Ulfilas, a Roman Arian bishop, was appointed as the first Christian missionary to the Goths, the Germanic peoples in much of Europe at the borders of and within the Roman Empire. Ulfilas spread Arian Christianity among the Goths, firmly establishing the faith among many of the Germanic tribes, thus helping to keep them culturally and religiously distinct from Chalcedonian Christians.

Arianism

There was no empire-wide persecution of Christians until the reign of Decius in the 3rd century. The last and most severe persecution organised by the imperial Roman authorities was the Diocletianic Persecution, 303–311. The Edict of Serdica was issued in 311 by the Roman Emperor Galerius, officially ending the persecution Christians in the East.

Persecution of Christians

The <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Constantine-the-Great#Edict%20of%20Milan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Edict of Milan</a> was the February 313 CE agreement to treat Christians benevolently within the Roman Empire. Western Roman Emperor Constantine I and Emperor Licinius, who controlled the Balkans, met in Mediolanum (modern-day Milan) and, among other things, agreed to change policies towards Christians following the edict of toleration issued by Emperor Galerius two years earlier in Serdica. The Edict of Milan gave Christianity legal status and a reprieve from persecution but did not make it the state church of the Roman Empire. That occurred in CE 380 with the Edict of Thessalonica.

Edict of Milan

Monasticism is a form of asceticism whereby one renounces worldly pursuits and goes off alone as a hermit or joins a tightly organized community. It began early in the Christian Church as a family of similar traditions, modelled upon Scriptural examples and ideals, and with roots in certain strands of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Judaism' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Judaism</a>. John the Baptist is seen as an archetypical monk, and monasticism was inspired by the organisation of the Apostolic community as recorded in Acts 2:42–47.Paul the Great is born. He is considered the be the very first Christian eremitic ascetic. He lived very reclusively and was only discovered by Anthony towards the end of his life. Eremitic monks, or hermits, live in solitude, whereas cenobitics live in communities, generally in a monastery, under a rule (or code of practice) and are governed by an abbot. Originally, all Christian monks were hermits, following the example of Anthony the Great. However, the need for some form of organised spiritual guidance lead Pachomius in 318 to organise his many followers in what was to become the first monastery. Soon, similar institutions were established throughout the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Egypt' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Egyptian</a> desert as well as the rest of the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Women were especially attracted to the movement. Central figures in the development of monasticism were Basil the Great in the East and, in the West, Benedict, who created the Rule of Saint Benedict, which would become the most common rule throughout the Middle Ages and the starting point for other monastic rules.

Early Christian Monasticism

Late Antiquity

In 325, Emperor Constantine called the bishops of the Christian Church to Nicaea, seeking unity within the empire. The central issue was the nature of Christ’s relationship to God the Father. A priest named Arius had argued that the Son was created and therefore not eternal, a teaching that drew many followers but also fierce opposition. Constantine, wishing to end division, provided support for bishops to attend from across the empire, making it the first ecumenical council of Christianity. The Council of Nicaea produced a creed that declared Jesus Christ to be “of the same substance” as the Father, a defining statement of Trinitarian belief. This creed, known as the Nicene Creed, won near-universal approval at the council. The bishops also settled other matters, including the dating of Easter and the recognition of certain episcopal jurisdictions, granting Alexandria authority by analogy with Rome and honoring Jerusalem without granting it metropolitan rank. Arian opposition did not vanish after Nicaea. Constantine himself attempted reconciliation with Arius, and after Arius’ death in 336 the controversy lingered. In 359, councils in both East and West endorsed a compromise formula that described Father and Son as merely “similar,” a high point for Arian influence. Yet opposition to Arianism persisted, and the First Council of Constantinople in 381 reaffirmed and extended the Nicene position, establishing it as orthodox doctrine within the empire. By then, however, Arian Christianity had spread among the Germanic tribes, where it endured until their gradual conversion to Nicene Christianity, culminating with the Franks’ embrace of the faith in 496.

First ecumenical councils

The original Nicene Creed was first adopted at the First Council of Nicaea in 325. In 381, it was amended at the First Council of Constantinople. The amended form is also referred to as the Nicene Creed, or the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed for disambiguation.The Nicene Creed is the defining statement of belief of Nicene or mainstream Christianity and in those Christian denominations that adhere to it. The Nicene Creed is part of the profession of faith required of those undertaking important functions within the Catholic Church.Nicene Christianity regards Jesus as divine and co-eternal with God the Father. Various non-Nicene doctrines, beliefs, and creeds have been formed since the fourth century, all of which are considered heresies by adherents of Nicene Christianity.

Nicene Creed

On 27 February 380, with the Edict of Thessalonica put forth under Theodosius I, Gratian, and Valentinian II, the Roman Empire officially adopted Trinitarian Christianity as its state religion. Prior to this date, Constantius II and Valens had personally favoured Arian or Semi-Arian forms of Christianity, but Valens' successor Theodosius I supported the Trinitarian doctrine as expounded in the Nicene Creed.After its establishment, the Church adopted the same organisational boundaries as the Empire: geographical provinces, called dioceses, corresponding to imperial government territorial divisions. The bishops, who were located in major urban centres as in pre-legalisation tradition, thus oversaw each diocese. The bishop's location was his 'seat', or 'see'. Among the sees, five came to hold special eminence: Rome, Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. The prestige of most of these sees depended in part on their apostolic founders, from whom the bishops were therefore the spiritual successors. Though the bishop of Rome was still held to be the First among equals, Constantinople was second in precedence as the new capital of the empire.Theodosius I decreed that others not believing in the preserved 'faithful tradition', such as the Trinity, were to be considered to be practitioners of illegal heresy, and in 385, this resulted in the first case of the state, not Church, infliction of capital punishment on a heretic, namely Priscillian.

Christianity as Roman state religion

During the early 5th century, the School of Edessa had taught a Christological perspective stating that Christ's divine and human nature were distinct persons. A particular consequence of this perspective was that Mary could not be properly called the mother of God but could only be considered the mother of Christ. The most widely known proponent of this viewpoint was the Patriarch of Constantinople Nestorius. Since referring to Mary as the mother of God had become popular in many parts of the Church this became a divisive issue.The Roman Emperor Theodosius II called for the Council of Ephesus (431), with the intention of settling the issue. The council ultimately rejected Nestorius' view. Many churches who followed the Nestorian viewpoint broke away from the Roman Church, causing a major schism. The Nestorian churches were persecuted, and many followers fled to the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Sasanian-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Sasanian Empire</a> where they were accepted. The Sasanian (<a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Iran' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Persian</a>) Empire had many Christian converts early in its history, tied closely to the Syriac branch of Christianity. The Sasanian Empire was officially Zoroastrian and maintained a strict adherence to this faith, in part to distinguish itself from the religion of the Roman Empire (originally the Greco-Roman Paganism and then Christianity). Christianity became tolerated in the Sasanian Empire, and as the Roman Empire increasingly exiled heretics during the 4th and 6th centuries, the Sasanian Christian community grew rapidly. By the end of the 5th century, the Persian Church was firmly established and had become independent of the Roman Church. This church evolved into what is today known as the Church of the East.In 451, the Council of Chalcedon was held to further clarify the Christological issues surrounding Nestorianism. The council ultimately stated that Christ's divine and human nature were separate but both part of a single entity, a viewpoint rejected by many churches who called themselves miaphysites. The resulting schism created a communion of churches, including the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Armenia' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Armenian</a>, Syrian, and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Egypt' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Egyptian</a> churches. Though efforts were made at reconciliation in the next few centuries, the schism remained permanent, resulting in what is today known as Oriental Orthodoxy.

Nestorian Schism

Early Middle Ages

The transition into the Early Middle Ages was a gradual and localised process. Rural areas rose as power centres whilst urban areas declined. Although a greater number of Christians remained in the East (Greek areas), important developments were underway in the West (Latin areas), and each took on distinctive shapes. The bishops of Rome, the popes, were forced to adapt to drastically changing circumstances. Maintaining only nominal allegiance to the emperor, they were forced to negotiate balances with the 'barbarian rulers' of the former Roman provinces. In the East, the Church maintained its structure and character and evolved more slowly.In Christianity's ancient Pentarchy, five patriarchies held special eminence: the sees of Rome, Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. The prestige of most of these sees depended in part on their apostolic founders, or in the case of Byzantium/Constantinople, that it was the new seat of the continuing Eastern Roman, or Byzantine Empire. These bishops considered themselves the successors of those apostles. In addition, all five cities were early centres of Christianity, they lost their importance after the Levant was conquered by the Sunni Caliphate.

Christianity in the Middle Ages

The stepwise loss of Western Roman Empire dominance, replaced with foederati and Germanic kingdoms, coincided with early missionary efforts into areas not controlled by the collapsing empire. As early as in the 5th century, missionary activities from <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Roman-Britain' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Roman Britain</a> into the Celtic areas (<a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Scotland' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Scotland</a>, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Ireland' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Ireland</a>, and Wales) produced competing early traditions of Celtic Christianity, that was later reintegrated under the Church in Rome. Prominent missionaries in Northwestern Europe of the time were the Christian saints Patrick, Columba, and Columbanus. The <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Anglo-Saxons' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Anglo-Saxon</a> tribes that invaded Southern Britain some time after the Roman abandonment were initially Pagans but were converted to Christianity by Augustine of Canterbury on the mission of Pope Gregory the Great. Soon becoming a missionary centre, missionaries such as Wilfrid, Willibrord, Lullus, and Boniface converted their Saxon relatives in Germania.The largely Christian Gallo-Roman inhabitants of Gaul (modern <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-France' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>France</a> and Belgium) were overrun by the Franks in the early 5th century. The native inhabitants were persecuted until the Frankish King Clovis I converted from Paganism to Roman Catholicism in 496. Clovis insisted that his fellow nobles follow suit, strengthening his newly established kingdom by uniting the faith of the rulers with that of the ruled. After the rise of the Frankish Kingdom and the stabilizing political conditions, the Western part of the Church increased the missionary activities, supported by the Merovingian dynasty as a means to pacify troublesome neighbour peoples. After the foundation of a church in Utrecht by Willibrord, backlashes occurred when the Pagan Frisian King Radbod destroyed many Christian centres between 716 and 719. In 717, the English missionary Boniface was sent to aid Willibrord, re-establishing churches in Frisia and continuing missions in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Germany' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Germany</a>. During the late 8th century, Charlemagne used mass killings in order to subjugate the Pagan Saxons and forcibly compel them to accept Christianity.

Christianization of Europe

The Slavs were Christianized in waves from the 7th to 12th century, though the process of replacing old Slavic religious practices began as early as the 6th century. Generally speaking, the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Bulgaria-First-Bulgarian-Empire#Christianization%20of%20Bulgaria' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>monarchs of the South Slavs</a> adopted Christianity in the 9th century, the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Kievan-Rus#Christianization%20of%20Kievan%20Rus'' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>East Slavs</a> in the 10th, and the West Slavs between the 9th and 12th century. <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Saints-Cyril-and-Methodius' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Saints Cyril and Methodius</a> (fl. 860–885) are attributed as 'Apostles to the Slavs', having introduced the Byzantine-Slavic rite (Old Slavonic liturgy) and Glagolitic alphabet, the oldest known Slavic alphabet and basis for the Early Cyrillic alphabet.The simultaneous missionary efforts to convert the Slavs by what would later become known as the Catholic Church of Rome and the Eastern Orthodox Church of Constantinople led to a 'second point of contention between Rome and Constantinople', especially in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Bulgaria' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Bulgaria</a> (9th–10th century). This was one of many events that preceded the East–West Schism of 1054 and led to the eventual split between the Greek East and Latin West. The Slavs thus became divided between Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism. Closely connected to the competing missionary efforts of the Roman Church and the Byzantine Church] was the spread of the Latin and Cyrillic scripts in Eastern Europe. The majority of Orthodox Slavs adopted Cyrillic, while most Catholic Slavs introduced the Latin, but there were many exceptions to this general rule. In areas where both Churches were proselytising to pagan Europeans, such as the Grand Duchy of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Lithuania' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Lithuania</a>, the Croatian Duchy and the Principality of Serbia, mixtures of languages, scripts and alphabets emerged, and the lines between Latin Catholic (Latinitas) and Cyrillic Orthodox literacy (Slavia Orthodoxa) were blurred.

Christianization of the Slavs

Christianity may have existed earlier in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-China' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>China</a>, but the first documented introduction was during the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Tang-Dynasty' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Tang Dynasty</a> (618–907) A Christian mission under the leadership of the priest Alopen (described variously as <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Iran' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Persian</a>, Syriac, or Nestorian) was known to have arrived in 635, where he and his followers received an Imperial Edict allowing for the establishment of a church. In China, the religion was known as Dàqín Jǐngjiào, or the Luminous Religion of the Romans. Dàqín designates Rome and the Near East, though from the Western view, Nestorian Christianity was considered heretical by the Latin Christians.Opposition arose to the Christians in 698-699 from the Buddhists, and then from the Daoists in 713, but Christianity continued to thrive, and in 781, a stone stele (the Nestorian Stele) was erected at the Tang capital of Chang-an, which recorded 150 years of Emperor-supported Christian history in China. The text of the stele describes flourishing communities of Christians throughout China, but beyond this and few other fragmentary records, relatively little is known of their history. In later years, other emperors were not as religiously tolerant. In 845, the Chinese authorities implemented an interdiction of foreign cults, and Christianity diminished in China until the time of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century.

Early Christianity in China

The Christianization of Scandinavia, as well as other Nordic countries and the Baltic countries, took place between the 8th and the 12th centuries. The realms of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Denmark' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Denmark</a>, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Norway' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Norway</a> and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Sweden' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Sweden</a> established their own Archdioceses, responsible directly to the Pope, in 1104, 1154 and 1164, respectively. The conversion to Christianity of the Scandinavian people required more time, since it took additional efforts to establish a network of churches. The Sami remained unconverted until the 18th century. Newer archaeological research suggests there were Christians in Götaland already during the 9th century; it is further believed Christianity came from the southwest and moved towards the north.Denmark was also the first of the Scandinavian countries which was Christianized, as Harald Bluetooth declared this around CE 975, and raised the larger of the two Jelling Stones. Although the Scandinavians became nominally Christian, it took considerably longer for actual Christian beliefs to establish themselves among the people in some regions, while the people were Christianized before the king in other regions. The old indigenous traditions that had provided security and structure were challenged by ideas that were unfamiliar, such as original sin, the Incarnation, and the Trinity. Archaeological excavations of burial sites on the island of Lovön near modern-day Stockholm have shown that the actual Christianization of the people was very slow and took at least 150 to 200 years, and this was a very central location in the Swedish kingdom. Thirteenth-century runic inscriptions from the merchant town of Bergen in Norway show little Christian influence, and one of them appeals to a Valkyrie.

Christianization of Scandinavia

Following a series of heavy military reverses against the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Muslim-conquest-of-the-Levant' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Muslims</a>, Iconoclasm emerged within the provinces of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Byzantine-Empire-Isaurian-dynasty' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Byzantine Empire</a> in the early 8th century. The First Iconoclasm, as it is sometimes called, occurred between about 726 and 787, while the Second Iconoclasm occurred between 814 and 842. According to the traditional view, Byzantine Iconoclasm was started by a ban on religious images promulgated by the Byzantine Emperor Leo III the Isaurian, and continued under his successors. It was accompanied by widespread destruction of religious images and persecution of supporters of the veneration of images. The iconoclastic movement destroyed much of the Christian Church's early artistic history.The Papacy remained firmly in support of the use of religious images throughout the period, and the whole episode widened the growing divergence between the Byzantine and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Carolingian-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Carolingian</a> traditions in what was still a unified European Church, as well as facilitating the reduction or removal of Byzantine political control over parts of the Italian Peninsula. In the Latin West, Pope Gregory III held two synods at Rome and condemned Leo's actions. The Byzantine Iconoclast Council, held at Hieria in 754 CE, ruled that holy portraits were heretical. The iconoclastic movement was later defined as heretical in 787 CE under the Second Council of Nicaea (the seventh ecumenical council) but had a brief resurgence between 815 and 842 CE.

Byzantine Iconoclasm

High Middle Ages

In the 9th century, a controversy arose between Eastern (Byzantine, Greek Orthodox) and Western (Latin, Roman Catholic) Christianity that was precipitated by the opposition of the Roman Pope John VII to the appointment by the Byzantine Emperor Michael III of Photios I to the position of patriarch of Constantinople. Photios was refused an apology by the pope for previous points of dispute between the East and West. Photios refused to accept the supremacy of the pope in Eastern matters or accept the Filioque clause. The Latin delegation at the council of his consecration pressed him to accept the clause in order to secure their support. The controversy also involved Eastern and Western ecclesiastical jurisdictional rights in the Bulgarian church. Photios did provide concession on the issue of jurisdictional rights concerning <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Bulgaria' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Bulgaria</a>, and the papal legates made do with his return of Bulgaria to Rome. This concession, however, was purely nominal, as Bulgaria's return to the Byzantine rite in 870 had already secured for it an autocephalous church. Without the consent of Boris I of Bulgaria, the papacy was unable to enforce any of its claims.

Photian Schism

From the 6th century onward, most of the monasteries in the Catholic West belonged to the Benedictine Order. Owing to the stricter adherence to a reformed Benedictine rule, the Abbey of Cluny became the acknowledged leading centre of Western monasticism from the later 10th century. Cluny created a large, federated order in which the administrators of subsidiary houses served as deputies of the abbot of Cluny and answered to him. The Cluniac spirit was a revitalising influence on the Norman Church, at its height from the second half of the 10th century through the early 12th century.The next wave of monastic reform came with the Cistercian movement. The first Cistercian abbey was founded in 1098, at Cîteaux Abbey. The keynote of Cistercian life was a return to a literal observance of the Benedictine rule, rejecting the developments of the Benedictines. The most striking feature in the reform was the return to manual labour, and especially to field-work. Inspired by Bernard of Clairvaux, the primary builder of the Cistercians, they became the main force of technological advancement and diffusion in medieval Europe. By the end of the 12th century, the Cistercian houses numbered 500, and at its height in the 15th century the order claimed to have close to 750 houses. Most of these were built in wilderness areas, and played a major part in bringing such isolated parts of Europe into economic cultivation.A third level of monastic reform was provided by the establishment of the Mendicant orders. Commonly known as 'friars', mendicants live under a monastic rule with traditional vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience but they emphasise preaching, missionary activity, and education, in a secluded monastery. Beginning in the 12th century, the Franciscan Order was instituted by the followers of Francis of Assisi, and thereafter the Dominican Order was begun by St. Dominic.

Monastic reform

The East-West Schism, also known as the Great Schism of 1054, marked the definitive break in communion between the Catholic Church in the West and the Eastern Orthodox Church. The schism was the culmination of long-standing theological, political, and cultural disagreements between the Greek-speaking East and the Latin-speaking West. Key issues included the inclusion of the Filioque clause in the Nicene Creed, the type of bread used in the Eucharist, the role of icons, and disputes over papal authority versus the status of the Patriarch of Constantinople.Tensions escalated in 1053 when the Western Church attempted to impose Latin practices on Greek churches in southern Italy, leading to a series of retaliatory actions. In 1054, a papal legation led by Cardinal Humbert was sent to Constantinople not only to address these church disputes but also to seek military support against the Normans in Italy. The mission failed, and mutual excommunications were issued by Humbert and Patriarch Michael I Cerularius, though these were largely symbolic as they did not reflect a wider ecclesiastical consensus.Despite the formal declarations, many ordinary Christians remained unaware of the depth of the schism, and relations between the two churches continued, albeit strained by political conflicts and the Crusades, particularly the Fourth Crusade’s sack of Constantinople in 1204, which deepened the division.Efforts toward reconciliation have been ongoing, including the symbolic lifting of the 1054 excommunications by Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras I in 1965. However, full communion has not been restored, and ecumenical efforts often face internal opposition. Relations today are marked by both continued dialogue and enduring division, with regular symbolic gestures and exchanges between the churches, underscoring a complex relationship that has evolved over nearly a millennium.

East–West Schism

The Investiture Controversy, also called Investiture Contest (German: Investiturstreit), was a conflict between the church and the state in medieval Europe over the ability to choose and install bishops (investiture) and abbots of monasteries and the pope himself. A series of popes in the 11th and 12th centuries undercut the power of the Holy Roman Emperor and other European monarchies, and the controversy led to nearly 50 years of civil war in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Germany' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Germany</a>.It began as a power struggle between Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV (then King, later Holy Roman Emperor) in 1076. The conflict ended in 1122, when Pope Callixtus II and Emperor Henry V agreed on the Concordat of Worms. The agreement required bishops to swear an oath of fealty to the secular monarch, who held authority 'by the lance' but left selection to the church. It affirmed the right of the church to invest bishops with sacred authority, symbolized by a ring and staff. In Germany (but not Italy and Burgundy), the Emperor also retained the right to preside over elections of abbots and bishops by church authorities, and to arbitrate disputes. Holy Roman Emperors renounced the right to choose the pope.In the meantime, there was also a brief but significant investiture struggle between Pope Paschal II and King Henry I of England from 1103 to 1107. The earlier resolution to that conflict, the Concordat of London, was very similar to the Concordat of Worms.

Investiture Controversy

The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The best known of these Crusades are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291 that were intended to recover Jerusalem and its surrounding area from Islamic rule. Concurrent military activities in the Iberian Peninsula against the Moors (the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Reconquista' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Reconquista</a>) and in northern Europe against pagan West Slavic, Baltic and Finnic peoples (the Northern Crusades) also became known as crusades. Through the 15th century, other church-sanctioned crusades were fought against heretical Christian sects, against the Byzantine and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Ottoman-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Ottoman empires</a>, to combat paganism and heresy, and for political reasons. Unsanctioned by the church, Popular Crusades of ordinary citizens were also frequent. Beginning with the First Crusade which resulted in the recovery of Jerusalem in 1099, dozens of Crusades were fought, providing a focal point of European history for centuries.In 1095, Pope Urban II proclaimed the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/First-Crusade' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>First Crusade</a> at the Council of Clermont. He encouraged military support for Byzantine emperor Alexios I against the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Seljuk-Turks' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Seljuk Turks</a> and called for an armed pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Across all social strata in western Europe, there was an enthusiastic popular response. The first Crusaders had a variety of motivations, including religious salvation, satisfying feudal obligations, opportunities for renown, and economic or political advantage. Later crusades were generally conducted by more organized armies, sometimes led by a king. All were granted papal indulgences. Initial successes established<a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Crusader-States-Outremer' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'> four Crusader states</a>: the County of Edessa; the Principality of Antioch; the Kingdom of Jerusalem; and the County of Tripoli. The Crusader presence remained in the region in some form until the fall of Acre in 1291. After this, there were no further crusades to recover the Holy Land.

Crusades

The Medieval Inquisition was a series of Inquisitions (Catholic Church bodies charged with suppressing heresy) from around 1184, including the Episcopal Inquisition (1184–1230s) and later the Papal Inquisition (1230s). The Medieval Inquisition was established in response to movements considered apostate or heretical to Roman Catholicism, in particular Catharism and Waldensians in Southern France and Northern Italy. These were the first movements of many inquisitions that would follow.The Cathars were first noted in the 1140s in Southern France, and the Waldensians around 1170 in Northern Italy. Before this point, individual heretics such as Peter of Bruis had often challenged the Church. However, the Cathars were the first mass organization in the second millennium that posed a serious threat to the authority of the Church. This article covers only these early inquisitions, not the Roman Inquisition of the 16th century onwards, or the somewhat different phenomenon of the Spanish Inquisition of the late 15th century, which was under the control of the Spanish monarchy using local clergy. The Portuguese Inquisition of the 16th century and various colonial branches followed the same pattern.

Medieval Inquisition

Late Middle Ages & Early Renaissance

The Avignon Papacy was the period from 1309 to 1376 during which seven successive popes resided in Avignon (then in the Kingdom of Arles, part of the Holy Roman Empire, now in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-France' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>France</a>) rather than in Rome. The situation arose from the conflict between the papacy and the French crown, culminating in the death of Pope Boniface VIII after his arrest and maltreatment by Philip IV of France. Following the further death of Pope Benedict XI, Philip forced a deadlocked conclave to elect the French Clement V as pope in 1305. Clement refused to move to Rome, and in 1309 he moved his court to the papal enclave at Avignon, where it remained for the next 67 years. This absence from Rome is sometimes referred to as the 'Babylonian captivity of the Papacy'.A total of seven popes reigned at Avignon, all French, and all under the influence of the French Crown. In 1376, Gregory XI abandoned Avignon and moved his court to Rome (arriving on January 17, 1377). But after Gregory's death in 1378, deteriorating relations between his successor Urban VI and a faction of cardinals gave rise to the Western Schism. This started a second line of Avignon popes, subsequently regarded as illegitimate. The last Avignon antipope, Benedict XIII, lost most of his support in 1398, including that of France; after five years besieged by the French, he fled to Perpignan in 1403. The schism ended in 1417 at the Council of Constance.

Avignon Papacy

The Western Schism was a split within the Catholic Church lasting from 1378 to 1417 in which bishops residing in Rome and Avignon both claimed to be the true pope, and were joined by a third line of Pisan claimants in 1409. The schism was driven by personalities and political allegiances, with the Avignon papacy being closely associated with the French monarchy. These rival claims to the papal throne damaged the prestige of the office.The papacy had resided in Avignon since 1309, but Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome in 1377. However, the Catholic Church split in 1378 when the College of Cardinals declared it had elected both Urban VI and Clement VII pope within six months of Gregory XI's death. After several attempts at reconciliation, the Council of Pisa (1409) declared that both rivals were illegitimate and declared elected a third purported pope. The schism was finally resolved when the Pisan claimant John XXIII called the Council of Constance (1414–1418). The Council arranged the abdication of both the Roman pope Gregory XII and the Pisan antipope John XXIII, excommunicated the Avignon antipope Benedict XIII, and elected Martin V as the new pope reigning from Rome.

Western Schism

Beginning with the first wave of European colonization, the religious discrimination, persecution, and violence toward the Indigenous peoples' native religions was systematically perpetrated by the European Christian colonists and settlers from the 15th-16th centuries onwards.During the Age of Discovery and the following centuries, the Spanish and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Portugal' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Portuguese</a> colonial empires were the most active in attempting to convert the Indigenous peoples of the Americas to the Christian religion. Pope Alexander VI issued the Inter caetera bull in May 1493 that confirmed the lands claimed by the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Spain' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Kingdom of Spain</a>, and mandated in exchange that the Indigenous peoples be converted to Catholic Christianity. During Columbus's second voyage, Benedictine friars accompanied him, along with twelve other priests. With the Spanish conquest of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Aztecs' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Aztec empire</a>, evangelization of the dense Indigenous populations was undertaken in what was called the 'spiritual conquest.' Several mendicant orders were involved in the early campaign to convert the Indigenous peoples. Franciscans and Dominicans learned Indigenous languages, such as Nahuatl, Mixtec, and Zapotec. One of the first schools for Indigenous peoples in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Mexico' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Mexico</a> was founded by Pedro de Gante in 1523. The friars aimed at converting Indigenous leaders, with the hope and expectation that their communities would follow suit. In densely populated regions, friars mobilized Indigenous communities to build churches, making the religious change visible; these churches and chapels were often in the same places as old temples, often using the same stones. 'Native peoples exhibited a range of responses, from outright hostility to active embrace of the new religion.' In central and southern Mexico where there was an existing Indigenous tradition of creating written texts, the friars taught Indigenous scribes to write their own languages in Latin letters. There is significant body of texts in Indigenous languages created by and for Indigenous peoples in their own communities for their own purposes. In frontier areas where there were no settled Indigenous populations, friars and Jesuits often created missions, bringing together dispersed Indigenous populations in communities supervised by the friars in order to more easily preach the gospel and ensure their adherence to the faith. These missions were established throughout the Spanish colonies which extended from the southwestern portions of current-day <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-United-States' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>United States</a> through Mexico and to <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Argentina' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Argentina</a> and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Chile' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Chile</a>.

Christianization of the Americas

Early Modern Period

The Reformation was a major movement within Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the Catholic Church and in particular to papal authority, arising from what were perceived to be errors, abuses, and discrepancies by the Catholic Church. The Reformation was the start of Protestantism and the split of the Western Church into Protestantism and what is now the Roman Catholic Church. It is also considered to be one of the events that signify the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the early modern period in Europe.Prior to Martin Luther, there were many earlier reform movements. Although the Reformation is usually considered to have started with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Martin Luther in 1517, he was not excommunicated until January 1521 by Pope Leo X. The Edict of Worms of May 1521 condemned Luther and officially banned citizens of the Holy Roman Empire from defending or propagating his ideas. The spread of Gutenberg's printing press provided the means for the rapid dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. Luther survived after being declared an outlaw due to the protection of Elector Frederick the Wise. The initial movement in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Germany' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Germany</a> diversified, and other reformers such as Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin arose. In general, the Reformers argued that salvation in Christianity was a completed status based on faith in Jesus alone and not a process that requires good works, as in the Catholic view. Key events of the period include: Diet of Worms (1521), formation of the Lutheran Duchy of Prussia (1525), English Reformation (1529 onwards), the Council of Trent (1545–63), the Peace of Augsburg (1555), the excommunication of Elizabeth I (1570), Edict of Nantes (1598) and Peace of Westphalia (1648). The Counter-Reformation, also called the Catholic Reformation or the Catholic Revival, was the period of Catholic reforms initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation.

Reformation

<a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Voyages-of-Ferdinand-Magellan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Ferdinand Magellan's</a> arrival in Cebu represents the first attempt by <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Spain' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Spain</a> to convert natives to Christianity. According to a description of events, Magellan met with Raja Humabon of Cebu, who had an ill grandson whom the explorer, or one of his men, was able to help cure. Out of gratitude, Humabon and his chief consort allowed themselves to be christened 'Carlos' and 'Juana', with some 800 of his subjects also being baptised. Later, Lapulapu, the monarch of neighbouring Mactan Island had his men killed Magellan and routed the ill-fated Spanish expedition.In 1564, Luís de Velasco, the Viceroy of New Spain, sent the Basque explorer Miguel López de Legazpi to the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Philippines' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Philippines</a>. Legazpi's expedition, which included the Augustinian friar and circumnavigator Andrés de Urdaneta, erected what is now Cebu City under the patronage of the Holy Child, and later conquered the Kingdom of Maynila in 1571 and the neighbouring Kingdom of Tondo in 1589. The colonisers then proceeded to proselytise as they explored and subjugated the remaining parts of what is now the Philippines until 1898, with the exception of parts of Mindanao, which had been Muslim since at latest the 10th century CE, and the Cordilleras, where numerous mountain tribes maintained their ancient beliefs as they resisted Western colonisation until the arrival of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-United-States' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>United States</a> in the early 20th century.

Christianity in the Philippines

The Puritan migration to New England was marked in its effects from 1620 to 1640, declining sharply afterwards. The term Great Migration usually refers to the migration in the period of English Puritans to Massachusetts and the Caribbean, especially Barbados. They came in family groups rather than as isolated individuals and were mainly motivated for freedom to practice their beliefs.

Puritan migration to New England

The Galileo affair (Italian: il processo a Galileo Galilei) began around 1610 and culminated with the trial and condemnation of Galileo Galilei by the Roman Catholic Inquisition in 1633. Galileo was prosecuted for his support of heliocentrism, the astronomical model in which the Earth and planets revolve around the Sun at the centre of the universe. In 1610, Galileo published his Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger), describing the surprising observations that he had made with the new telescope, among them, the Galilean moons of Jupiter. With these observations and additional observations that followed, such as the phases of Venus, he promoted the heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus published in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium in 1543. Galileo's discoveries were met with opposition within the Catholic Church, and in 1616 the Inquisition declared heliocentrism to be 'formally heretical.' Galileo went on to propose a theory of tides in 1616, and of comets in 1619; he argued that the tides were evidence for the motion of the Earth. In 1632 Galileo published his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which defended heliocentrism, and was immensely popular. Responding to mounting controversy over theology, astronomy and philosophy, the Roman Inquisition tried Galileo in 1633, found him 'vehemently suspect of heresy', and sentenced him to house arrest where he remained until his death in 1642. At that point, heliocentric books were banned and Galileo was ordered to abstain from holding, teaching or defending heliocentric ideas after the trial. Originally Pope Urban VIII had been a patron to Galileo and had given him permission to publish on the Copernican theory as long as he treated it as a hypothesis, but after the publication in 1632, the patronage was broken off.

Galileo affair

The Counter-Reformation was the period of Catholic resurgence that was initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation. It began with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) and largely ended with the conclusion of the European wars of religion in 1648. Initiated to address the effects of the Protestant Reformation, the Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort composed of apologetic and polemical documents and ecclesiastical configuration as decreed by the Council of Trent. The last of these included the efforts of Imperial Diets of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Germany' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Holy Roman Empire</a>, heresy trials and the Inquisition, anti-corruption efforts, spiritual movements, and the founding of new religious orders. Such policies had long-lasting effects in European history with exiles of Protestants continuing until the 1781 Patent of Toleration, although smaller expulsions took place in the 19th century.Such reforms included the foundation of seminaries for the proper training of priests in the spiritual life and the theological traditions of the Church, the reform of religious life by returning orders to their spiritual foundations, and new spiritual movements focusing on the devotional life and a personal relationship with Christ, including the Spanish mystics and the French school of spirituality.It also involved political activities that included the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Spain' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Spanish Inquisition</a> and the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Portugal' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Portuguese Inquisition</a> in Goa and Bombay-Bassein etc. A primary emphasis of the Counter-Reformation was a mission to reach parts of the world that had been colonized as predominantly Catholic and also try to reconvert nations such as <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Sweden' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Sweden</a> and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-England' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>England</a> that once were Catholic from the time of the Christianisation of Europe, but had been lost to the Reformation.

Counter-Reformation

The <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Colonial-History-of-the-United-States/event/First-Great-Awakening' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>First Great Awakening</a> (sometimes Great Awakening) or the Evangelical Revival was a series of Christian revivals that swept Britain and its thirteen North American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s. The revival movement permanently affected Protestantism as adherents strove to renew individual piety and religious devotion. The Great Awakening marked the emergence of Anglo-American evangelicalism as a trans-denominational movement within the Protestant churches. In the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-United-States' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>United States</a>, the term Great Awakening is most often used, while in the United Kingdom the movement is referred to as the Evangelical Revival.Building on the foundations of older traditions—Puritanism, Pietism and Presbyterianism—major leaders of the revival such as George Whitefield, John Wesley and Jonathan Edwards articulated a theology of revival and salvation that transcended denominational boundaries and helped forge a common evangelical identity. Revivalists added to the doctrinal imperatives of Reformation Protestantism an emphasis on providential outpourings of the Holy Spirit. Extemporaneous preaching gave listeners a sense of deep personal conviction of their need of salvation by Jesus Christ and fostered introspection and commitment to a new standard of personal morality. Revival theology stressed that religious conversion was not only intellectual assent to correct Christian doctrine but had to be a 'new birth' experienced in the heart. Revivalists also taught that receiving assurance of salvation was a normal expectation in the Christian life.While the Evangelical Revival united evangelicals across various denominations around shared beliefs, it also led to division in existing churches between those who supported the revivals and those who did not. Opponents accused the revivals of fostering disorder and fanaticism within the churches by enabling uneducated, itinerant preachers and encouraging religious enthusiasm.

First Great Awakening

Late Modern Period

The Restoration Movement (also known as the American Restoration Movement or the Stone–Campbell Movement, and pejoratively as Campbellism) is a Christian movement that began on the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-United-States' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>United States</a> frontier during the Second Great Awakening (1790–1840) of the early 19th century. The pioneers of this movement were seeking to reform the church from within and sought 'the unification of all Christians in a single body patterned after the church of the New Testament.The Restoration Movement developed from several independent strands of religious revival that idealized early Christianity. Two groups, which independently developed similar approaches to the Christian faith, were particularly important. The first, led by Barton W. Stone, began at Cane Ridge, Kentucky, and identified as 'Christians'. The second began in western Pennsylvania and Virginia (now West Virginia) and was led by Thomas Campbell and his son, Alexander Campbell, both educated in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Scotland' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Scotland</a>; they eventually used the name 'Disciples of Christ'. Both groups sought to restore the whole Christian church based on visible patterns set forth in the New Testament, and both believed that creeds kept Christianity divided. In 1832 they joined in fellowship with a handshake.Among other things, they were united in the belief that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God; that Christians should celebrate the Lord's Supper on the first day of each week; and that baptism of adult believers was necessarily by immersion in water.: 147–148 Because the founders wanted to abandon all denominational labels, they used the biblical names for the followers of Jesus.: 27 Both groups promoted a return to the purposes of the 1st-century churches as described in the New Testament. One historian of the movement has argued that it was primarily a unity movement, with the restoration motif playing a subordinate role.

Restoration Movement

The first missionaries were sent by Stamford Raffles in 1824, at which time Sumatra was under temporary British rule. They observed that the Batak seemed receptive to new religious thought, and were likely to fall to the first mission, either Islamic or Christian, to attempt conversion.A second mission that in 1834 of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions met with a brutal end when its two missionaries were killed by Batak resistant to outside interference in their traditional adat.The first Christian community in North Sumatra was established in Sipirok, a community of (Batak) Angkola people. Three missionaries from an independent church in Ermelo, Netherlands arrived in 1857, and on 7 October 1861 one of the Ermelo missionaries united with the Rhenish Missionary Society, which had been recently expelled from Kalimantan as a result of the Banjarmasin War.The mission was immensely successful, being well supported financially from Germany, and adopted effective evangelistic strategies led by Ludwig Ingwer Nommensen, who spent most of his life from 1862 until his death in 1918 in North Sumatra, successfully converting many among the Simalungun and Batak Toba as well as a minority of Angkola.

Christianity in Indonesia

In reaction to these developments, Christian fundamentalism was a movement to reject the radical influences of philosophical humanism as this was affecting the Christian religion. Especially targeting critical approaches to the interpretation of the Bible, and trying to blockade the inroads made into their churches by atheistic scientific assumptions, fundamentalist Christians began to appear in various Christian denominations as numerous independent movements of resistance to the drift away from historic Christianity. Over time, the Evangelical movement has divided into two main wings, with the label Fundamentalist following one branch, while the term Evangelical has become the preferred banner of the more moderate side. Although both strands of Evangelicalism primarily originated in the English-speaking world, the majority of Evangelicals today live elsewhere in the world.

Christian fundamentalism

Contemporary Christianity

The Second Ecumenical Council of the Vatican, commonly known as the Second Vatican Council, or Vatican II, was the 21st ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church. The council met in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome for four periods (or sessions), each lasting between 8 and 12 weeks, in the autumn of each of the four years 1962 to 1965. Preparation for the council took three years, from the summer of 1959 to the autumn of 1962. The council was opened on 11 October 1962 by John XXIII (pope during the preparation and the first session), and was closed on 8 December 1965 by Paul VI (pope during the last three sessions, after the death of John XXIII on 3 June 1963). Pope John XXIII called the council because he felt the Church needed “updating” (in Italian: aggiornamento). In order to connect with 20th-century people in an increasingly secularized world, some of the Church's practices needed to be improved, and its teaching needed to be presented in a way that would appear relevant and understandable to them. Many Council participants were sympathetic to this, while others saw little need for change and resisted efforts in that direction. But support for aggiornamento won out over resistance to change, and as a result the sixteen magisterial documents produced by the council proposed significant developments in doctrine and practice: an extensive reform of the liturgy, a renewed theology of the Church, of revelation and of the laity, a new approach to relations between the Church and the world, to ecumenism, to non-Christian religions to religious freedom and more importantly, on the eastern Churches.

Second Vatican Council

Ecumenism broadly refers to movements between Christian groups to establish a degree of unity through dialogue. Ecumenism is derived from Greek οἰκουμένη (oikoumene), which means 'the inhabited world', but more figuratively something like 'universal oneness.' The movement can be distinguished into Catholic and Protestant movements, with the latter characterised by a redefined ecclesiology of 'denominationalism' (which the Catholic Church, among others, rejects).Over the last century, moves have been made to reconcile the schism between the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox churches. Although progress has been made, concerns over papal primacy and the independence of the smaller Orthodox churches has blocked a final resolution of the schism. On 30 November 1894, Pope Leo XIII published Orientalium Dignitas. On 7 December 1965, a Joint Catholic-Orthodox Declaration of Pope Paul VI and the Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras I was issued lifting the mutual excommunications of 1054.

Catholic-Orthodox Ecumenism

The history of Christianity continues to be written today. As new generations of Christians are born and raised, their own stories and experiences become part of the larger narrative of the faith. The growth of Christianity has been especially remarkable in recent decades, with the religion now being the largest in the world. The influence of Christianity is felt in almost every sector of society. It has impacted governments, business, science, and culture in profound ways. And yet, despite its incredible impact on the world, Christianity remains a deeply personal journey for each of its followers. No two Christians share the same journey, and each person’s faith is shaped by their own personal experiences and relationships. In the end, Christianity is a living, breathing faith that continues to transform and be transformed by the people who follow it. Its future will be determined by the stories we tell, the choices we make, and the way we choose to live our lives.

Epilogue

History of Christianity

John the Baptist (c. 6 BCE – c. CE 30) was a Jewish preacher active in the early first century CE, primarily in the region of the Jordan River. He is recognized in various religious traditions, including Christianity, Islam, and the Baháʼí Faith, and is often referred to as the precursor to Jesus. Historical accounts of John are found in the writings of the Roman Jewish historian Josephus, who noted his execution by Herod Antipas, and in the New Testament, where he is depicted as a significant religious figure.According to the New Testament, John was born to Zechariah and Elizabeth, who were both described as descendants of Aaron. His birth was foretold by the angel Gabriel, and he is often associated with the prophetic tradition of preparing the way for the Messiah. John is known for his practice of baptism, which he used as a symbol of repentance and purification. He baptized many, including Jesus, marking the beginning of Jesus' public ministry. The Gospels portray John as a figure who anticipated a greater one to come, often identifying him with the prophet Elijah.John's ministry attracted a significant following, and some of his disciples later became followers of Jesus. His teachings emphasized moral integrity and the imminent arrival of God's kingdom. However, his outspoken criticism of Herod Antipas for marrying Herodias, his brother's wife, led to his imprisonment and eventual execution. Josephus corroborates this account, stating that John was executed at the fortress of Machaerus due to Herod's fear of his influence over the people.After John's death, his followers continued to exist into the second century CE, with some proclaiming him as the awaited Messiah. The Mandaeans, a religious group that emerged in the first century, regard John as their final prophet. In Christian tradition, John is commemorated on two feast days: his nativity on June 24 and his beheading on August 29. His legacy persists in various forms across different cultures and religions, highlighting his role as a pivotal figure in the religious landscape of the time.

John the Baptist

Saint Peter, born Shimon bar Yonah, lived from 1 BCE to approximately 64/68 CE. He was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus and a prominent leader in the early Christian Church. Peter is mentioned frequently in the New Testament, including all four gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. Catholic and Orthodox traditions regard him as the first bishop of Rome, or pope, and also as the first bishop of Antioch.Peter's leadership of early Christians is believed to have lasted from around 30 or 33 CE until his death, potentially making him the longest-serving pope, although this is not definitively verified. Christian tradition holds that he was crucified in Rome under Emperor Nero. All ancient Christian churches honor Peter as a major saint and the founder of both the Church of Antioch and the Church of Rome, though they differ in their views on the authority of his successors. According to Catholic doctrine, Jesus conferred a special role upon Peter within the Church.Peter, originally named Simon, was a fisherman from Bethsaida and the brother of Andrew. The gospels recount that Jesus healed Peter's mother-in-law, indicating that Peter was likely married. He and Andrew were called by Jesus to be 'fishers of men.' Peter is depicted as a central figure in the gospels, often acting as the spokesperson for the apostles. He famously confessed Jesus as the Messiah, after which Jesus named him Cephas, meaning 'rock' in Aramaic.During the Last Supper, Peter initially resisted Jesus washing his feet but later requested a more thorough washing. He is also noted for cutting off the ear of a servant during Jesus' arrest, an act that Jesus subsequently healed. Following Jesus' resurrection, Peter was the first to whom Jesus appeared, and he affirmed his love for Jesus three times, paralleling his earlier denials.Peter played a significant role in the early Church, leading missionary efforts and addressing the inclusion of Gentiles. He was imprisoned by Herod Agrippa but was miraculously freed. His later activities are less documented, but he is believed to have traveled to various locations, including Antioch and possibly Corinth, where he may have established a Christian community.Tradition holds that Peter eventually moved to Rome, where he became a leader of the Christian community. Irenaeus of Lyons and other early Church Fathers noted that Peter and Paul founded the Church in Rome. The writings of early Church historians suggest that Peter served as bishop of Rome and was succeeded by Linus.Peter's death is traditionally dated to around 64 CE, during Nero's persecution of Christians, following the Great Fire of Rome. He is said to have been crucified upside down, as he felt unworthy to die in the same manner as Jesus. His burial site is believed to be where St. Peter's Basilica now stands.Peter is commemorated on June 29, the feast day shared with Paul, and is recognized as a foundational figure in Christianity. His legacy includes the belief in apostolic succession, with the pope viewed as his successor in the Catholic Church.

Saint Peter

Jesus, born around 6 to 4 BCE, was a Jewish preacher and religious leader in the Roman province of Judea. He is recognized as the central figure of Christianity. Most scholars agree on his historical existence, with accounts of his life primarily found in the four canonical Gospels of the New Testament. Jesus was circumcised on the eighth day after his birth and baptized by John the Baptist as a young adult. Following a period of fasting in the wilderness, he began his ministry as an itinerant teacher, interpreting Jewish law and engaging in debates with fellow Jews. He performed healings, taught in parables, and gathered followers, appointing twelve as his apostles.Jesus was arrested in Jerusalem, tried by Jewish authorities, and handed over to the Roman governor Pontius Pilate, who ordered his crucifixion. After his death, his followers believed he rose from the dead, leading to the formation of the early Christian Church. Christian theology holds that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the virgin Mary, performed miracles, died for humanity's sins, rose from the dead, and will return in the future. His birth is celebrated on December 25, and his crucifixion and resurrection are commemorated on Good Friday and Easter Sunday, respectively.Judaism does not recognize Jesus as the messiah, arguing that he did not fulfill the messianic prophecies. In Islam, Jesus is regarded as a prophet and the messiah, who was sent to guide the Israelites. Muslims believe he was born of the virgin Mary but was neither divine nor crucified, as God raised him to heaven. Jesus is also respected in the Baháʼí Faith and the Druze faith, among others.Jesus's name, commonly referred to as 'Jesus of Nazareth,' reflects the naming conventions of his time, where individuals were often identified by their place of origin or their father's name. The term 'Christ' is a title meaning 'anointed one,' derived from the Greek word 'Christos,' translating the Hebrew 'mashiakh.' The Gospels, written by different authors, provide varying accounts of Jesus's life and teachings, with the Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) sharing similarities in content and structure, while the Gospel of John presents a distinct narrative.Jesus's early life was spent in Nazareth, where he lived with his family, including his mother Mary and his brothers. His profession is described as that of a carpenter or builder. The Gospels recount his childhood, including a visit to the Temple in Jerusalem at the age of twelve, where he engaged with teachers. His public ministry began with his baptism and was marked by significant events, including the calling of his disciples, the Sermon on the Mount, and various miracles.During his ministry, Jesus taught about the Kingdom of God, emphasizing love, repentance, and adherence to God's law. He performed numerous miracles, including healings and nature miracles, which were seen as signs of his divine authority. The Gospels depict Jesus as a figure of compassion, often associating with marginalized individuals. His teachings were conveyed through parables, which illustrated moral and spiritual lessons.The last week of Jesus's life, known as Passion Week, included his triumphal entry into Jerusalem, the Last Supper with his disciples, and his subsequent arrest and trial. The Last Supper is significant for its institution of the Eucharist. Following his arrest, Jesus faced trials before the Sanhedrin and Pontius Pilate, leading to his crucifixion. He was buried in a tomb, and the Gospels describe the discovery of the empty tomb and his post-resurrection appearances to his followers.Jesus's ascension into heaven is recorded in the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles, where he is said to have appeared to his disciples before ascending. His life and teachings have had a profound impact on history, leading to the establishment of Christianity as a major world religion. The historical Jesus is a subject of ongoing scholarly research, with various interpretations of his life and significance emerging over time.

Jesus

James the Just, also known as James, brother of Jesus, was a prominent figure in early Christianity, recognized as the first Jewish bishop of Jerusalem. According to the New Testament, he was one of the brothers of Jesus, alongside Joses, Simon, and Judas, with references found in the Gospels of Matthew and Mark. The exact nature of his relationship to Jesus is debated, with some traditions asserting that he was a biological brother, while others claim he was a cousin or a step-brother from a previous marriage of Joseph.James was a key leader in the Jerusalem Church, which was an early Christian community. After the ascension of Jesus, he was appointed bishop, with Peter and John also playing significant roles. The church faced challenges during the Roman siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE, leading to a temporary relocation to Pella. Following the siege, James continued to lead the church until his martyrdom, which is traditionally dated to around 62 CE. Josephus, a Jewish historian, records that James was stoned to death by order of High Priest Ananus ben Ananus, while other accounts suggest he was thrown from the Temple's pinnacle and then beaten to death.James is often referred to as 'the Just' due to his virtuous character. Eusebius and other early church historians note that he was known for his piety and ascetic lifestyle, reportedly never consuming alcohol or meat. He was recognized as a pillar of the early church, alongside Peter and John, and played a crucial role in the Council of Jerusalem, where he advocated for the inclusion of Gentiles in the Christian faith without the requirement of circumcision.In the New Testament, Paul mentions James as a significant figure in the early Christian community, indicating that he met with him during his visits to Jerusalem. Paul describes James as one of the apostles who witnessed the risen Christ. The Epistle of James, traditionally attributed to him, emphasizes faith and works, reflecting his leadership in a community that maintained strong ties to Jewish law.James' death is noted as a pivotal event, with some early Christians believing it led to divine retribution against Jerusalem. His martyrdom is commemorated in various Christian traditions, and he is venerated as a saint in both the Catholic and Orthodox churches. The historical accounts of his life and death, while varying in detail, consistently highlight his importance in the formation of early Christianity and his role as a leader in the Jerusalem Church.

James the Just

Paul, also known as Saul of Tarsus, was a significant figure in early Christianity, active from approximately 5 CE to 64/65 CE. He is recognized for spreading the teachings of Jesus and establishing Christian communities across Asia Minor and Europe during the mid-40s to mid-50s CE. The primary sources of information about his life and work are the Acts of the Apostles and his epistles in the New Testament, which document his travels, preaching, and miracles.Paul was not one of the Twelve Apostles and did not know Jesus during his lifetime. However, he was a contemporary of Jesus and had connections with key figures in the early church, including Peter, John, and James. Initially, Paul was a Pharisee who actively persecuted early Christians. His conversion occurred on the road to Damascus, where he experienced a vision of Jesus, leading to his baptism and subsequent proclamation of Jesus as the Messiah.Paul undertook three major missionary journeys, focusing on non-Jewish communities. He is traditionally credited with writing fourteen of the twenty-seven books in the New Testament, although the authenticity of some letters is debated among scholars. Seven letters are widely accepted as genuine, while others, such as Ephesians and the pastoral epistles, are often considered pseudepigraphical. His writings have had a lasting impact on Christian theology and practice.Born in Tarsus, Paul was a Roman citizen and a member of the Tribe of Benjamin. He was educated in Jerusalem under Gamaliel, a prominent teacher of Jewish law. Following his conversion, Paul began his ministry in Damascus and later traveled to Arabia and Jerusalem, where he met key leaders of the early church. His first missionary journey, undertaken with Barnabas, took him to Cyprus and southern Asia Minor, where he preached in synagogues and converted both Jews and Gentiles.In 49 CE, Paul participated in the Council of Jerusalem, which addressed the issue of whether Gentile converts should be required to follow Jewish law. The council affirmed Paul's mission to the Gentiles, although tensions arose later, notably during the 'Incident at Antioch,' where Paul confronted Peter over issues of Jewish customs and Gentile inclusion.Paul's second missionary journey began in 49 CE, during which he traveled through Asia Minor and into Macedonia, establishing churches in cities such as Philippi, Thessalonica, and Corinth. He spent a significant amount of time in Corinth, where he formed partnerships with Priscilla and Aquila. His third missionary journey involved extensive work in Ephesus, where he faced opposition from local craftsmen and performed numerous miracles.After completing his third journey, Paul returned to Jerusalem in 57 CE, bringing financial support for the local Christian community. He was arrested following accusations of defiling the temple and was subsequently imprisoned in Caesarea for two years. Paul appealed to Caesar as a Roman citizen, leading to his transport to Rome. During his journey, he was shipwrecked on Malta but continued to Rome, where he spent two years under house arrest, preaching and awaiting trial.Paul's death is believed to have occurred around 64 CE, during the Neronian persecution. While the Acts of the Apostles does not document his death, early Christian writers suggest he was martyred, likely by beheading. His remains were buried outside Rome, and later traditions developed around his burial site, which became a significant pilgrimage destination.Paul's writings and teachings have profoundly influenced Christian thought, particularly regarding the relationship between faith and works, the inclusion of Gentiles in the church, and the nature of Jesus as the Messiah. His legacy continues to shape Christian theology and practice across various traditions.

Paul the Apostle

John the Apostle, also known as Saint John the Beloved and Saint John the Theologian in Eastern Orthodox Christianity, was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus, born around 6 CE and believed to have died around 100 CE. He was the son of Zebedee and Salome, and the younger brother of James the Great. Church tradition identifies him as John the Evangelist, John of Patmos, John the Elder, and the Beloved Disciple. He is generally regarded as the youngest apostle and is said to have outlived the other apostles, dying of natural causes, although this claim is debated among modern scholars.Traditionally, John is credited with the authorship of the Gospel of John, the three Johannine epistles, and the Book of Revelation, collectively known as the Johannine works. However, contemporary scholars are divided on the authorship of these texts, with many suggesting that they were written by different individuals. Most agree that the three epistles share a common author, distinct from that of Revelation, while the authorship of the Gospel remains contentious.John was born into a family of fishermen on the Sea of Galilee. He and his brother James were called by Jesus to be disciples, following the testimony of John the Baptist. The Synoptic Gospels recount that Jesus referred to John and James as 'Boanerges,' or 'sons of thunder.' John is noted for his close relationship with Jesus, being present at significant events such as the Transfiguration and the Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane. He was also the only apostle to remain with Jesus during the crucifixion and was entrusted with the care of Mary, the mother of Jesus.After the resurrection and ascension of Jesus, John played a prominent role in the early Christian church, particularly in Jerusalem. He was involved in key events, including the healing of a lame man and the spread of the gospel to Samaria. Paul recognized John, along with Peter and James, as a pillar of the church. John is often associated with the 'disciple whom Jesus loved,' a figure mentioned multiple times in the Gospel of John, although this identification is debated.Tradition holds that John continued his ministry in Ephesus after the Assumption of Mary and wrote the Johannine epistles there. He was later exiled to the island of Patmos during the reign of Emperor Domitian, where he is believed to have written the Book of Revelation. Early church writers, including Eusebius, noted that John was subjected to persecution, including an account of being plunged into boiling oil but surviving unharmed.John is traditionally thought to have lived to an old age, dying in Ephesus around 98 CE. His tomb is believed to be located in the Basilica of St. John in Selçuk, Turkey. John is commemorated in various Christian traditions, with feast days established in the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church. He is also recognized in Islamic and Druze traditions, where he is honored as a prophet.In art, John is often depicted as either an aged man or a youthful figure, with symbols such as a chalice and an eagle representing his writings and theological significance. His influence extends through various cultural and religious contexts, reflecting his importance in early Christianity and beyond.

John the Apostle

Pope Urban I, also known as Saint Urban, was the bishop of Rome from 222 CE until his death on 23 May 230 CE. He was born in Rome and succeeded Pope Callixtus I, who had been martyred. For many centuries, it was believed that Urban I was also martyred; however, recent historical research suggests he died of natural causes.The details of Urban's life and papacy are largely unclear, with few historical sources available. He is recognized as the first pope whose reign can be definitively dated. Two significant sources for his pontificate are Eusebius's history of the early Church and an inscription found in the Coemeterium Callisti. Urban ascended to the papacy in 222 CE, coinciding with the assassination of Emperor Elagabalus, and served during the reign of Alexander Severus. This period is thought to have been relatively peaceful for Christians, as Severus did not actively persecute them.During Urban's papacy, the schismatic Hippolytus led a rival Christian congregation in Rome and published the Philosophumena, which criticized Urban's predecessor, Callixtus I. Urban is believed to have continued the policies of Callixtus in dealing with this schismatic group. The Christian community in Rome expanded during this time, likely due to the relative freedoms granted under Severus's rule, leading to the perception that Urban was an effective converter. A papal decree attributed to Urban stated that the donations of the faithful at Mass should be used solely for ecclesiastical purposes and the welfare of the Christian community.Urban was traditionally thought to be buried in the Coemeterium Praetextati, where a tomb inscribed with his name was located. However, excavations by Italian archaeologist Giovanni de Rossi in the Catacomb of Callixtus revealed a sarcophagus lid suggesting Urban was buried there instead. De Rossi found a list of martyrs and confessors that included Urban's name, leading him to conclude that the Urban buried in the Coemeterium Praetextati was a different bishop. Despite this, some historians remain skeptical, as Pope Sixtus III's list of saints buried in the Catacomb of St. Callistus does not include Urban among the popes but lists him with foreign bishops. Thus, the exact burial site of Pope Urban I remains uncertain.Urban is recognized as a saint by both the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. A relic of his body is preserved in Hungary at the Monok Roman Catholic Church, which was donated by Pope Clement XIV to the Andrássy family in 1773.Due to the lack of contemporary accounts, many legends and myths have emerged regarding Urban's life and actions. The Acts of St. Cecilia and the Liber Pontificalis contain information about him, though their reliability is questionable. Urban is depicted in various artworks, often shown wearing the papal tiara and robes, sometimes holding a sword or a Bible. He is also represented in scenes of martyrdom, such as being beheaded or scourged.

Pope Urban I

Saint Lawrence, also known as Laurence, was born on 31 December 225 CE in Huesca, in the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis. His parents were traditionally identified as the martyrs Orentius and Patientia. Lawrence met Pope Sixtus II in Caesaraugusta and accompanied him to Rome, where he was ordained as a deacon in 257 CE and later appointed Archdeacon of Rome. This role involved managing the Church's treasury and distributing alms to the poor.During the persecution of Christians ordered by Emperor Valerian in 258 CE, an edict was issued for the execution of bishops, priests, and deacons. Pope Sixtus II was captured and executed on 6 August 258 CE. Following this, the prefect of Rome demanded that Lawrence surrender the Church's wealth. Lawrence requested three days to gather the treasures, during which he distributed much of the Church's property to the needy. On the third day, he presented the poor to the prefect, declaring them the true treasures of the Church. This act of defiance led to his martyrdom.Lawrence was sentenced at San Lorenzo in Miranda and imprisoned at San Lorenzo in Fonte, where he baptized fellow prisoners. He was ultimately martyred at San Lorenzo in Panisperna, where he was said to have been executed on a gridiron, a detail that became associated with his legacy. He was buried in the Catacomb of Cyriaca on the Via Tiburtina, as noted in the Almanac of Filocalus from 354 CE.Emperor Constantine I later erected a small oratory in Lawrence's honor, which became a pilgrimage site. Pope Damasus I rebuilt the church now known as the Basilica di San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, while the Minor Basilica of San Lorenzo in Panisperna was constructed over the site of his martyrdom. Several churches in Rome are dedicated to him, including those at sites associated with his life and martyrdom.Miracles attributed to Lawrence were documented in early writings, including those of Gregory of Tours. One notable miracle involved a priest who, while rebuilding a church dedicated to Lawrence, found a small loaf of bread that miraculously multiplied to feed his workers. Lawrence is venerated as the patron saint of archivists and librarians, and his feast day is celebrated on 10 August, recognized in both the Roman Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion.Lawrence's legacy extends beyond religious observance; he is commemorated in various locations worldwide, including Canada, where the St. Lawrence River and Gulf were named after him. His influence is evident in numerous churches, schools, and towns named in his honor, reflecting his enduring significance in Christian history.

Saint Lawrence

Arius (c. 250 or 256 – 336 CE) was a presbyter from Cyrenaica, known for his role in the development of Arianism, a theological doctrine asserting that Jesus Christ was not coeternal with God the Father but was created by Him. This view emphasized a hierarchical relationship within the Godhead, which was contested by prominent figures of the 4th century, including Athanasius of Alexandria.The formal decriminalization of Christianity in the Roman Empire under Constantine the Great led to the convening of ecumenical councils aimed at resolving theological disputes. Arianism became a central issue at the First Council of Nicaea in 325 CE, where it was condemned in favor of the Homoousian view, which posited that the Son was of the same essence as the Father. The Nicene Creed, established during this council, explicitly rejected Arian beliefs. Despite this condemnation, Arian churches continued to exist for centuries across Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa, often facing suppression through military means or royal conversion between the 5th and 7th centuries.Arius's early life remains somewhat obscure, though he is believed to have been of Berber descent, with his father named Ammonius. He became a presbyter in Alexandria around 313 CE. His theological views were often portrayed as flawed, yet some modern scholars argue that he was a resourceful thinker. Arius was characterized as tall, ascetic, and persuasive, and he is often described as a theological conservative rather than a radical innovator.Very few of Arius's writings have survived, primarily consisting of three letters and fragments of a work known as the Thalia. Most of what is known about his teachings comes from the writings of his opponents, particularly Athanasius, who may have misrepresented Arius's views. The Arian controversy began in 318 CE when Arius publicly criticized Bishop Alexander of Alexandria for his teachings on the nature of the Father and the Son. Arius argued that if the Father begat the Son, then the Son must have had a beginning, leading to the conclusion that there was a time when the Son did not exist.Initially, Arius's support was largely confined to Alexandria, although he gained some notable allies, including Eusebius of Nicomedia and Eusebius of Caesarea. The controversy escalated, prompting Emperor Constantine to intervene. He convened the First Council of Nicaea, which included representatives from across the empire. During the council, Arius's writings were condemned, and he was ultimately exiled along with some of his supporters.Following the council, the Arian controversy did not cease. After the death of Bishop Alexander in 327 CE, Athanasius succeeded him, and Constantine's stance toward Arians softened over time. Arius was allowed to return from exile after modifying his views. His death in 336 CE was marked by dramatic accounts, with some suggesting it was a result of divine retribution for his heretical beliefs, while others proposed it was due to poisoning by his opponents.The Arian controversy persisted long after Arius's death, with Arianism experiencing a resurgence under the reign of Constantius II. The theological debates continued until the First Council of Constantinople in 381 CE, which reaffirmed the Nicene Creed and condemned Arianism. Arianism maintained a presence among certain groups, particularly the Goths and Vandals, until it was gradually suppressed in the following centuries.

Arius

Gregory the Illuminator (c. 257 – c. 331) was the founder and first official head of the Armenian Apostolic Church. He is credited with converting Armenia from Zoroastrianism to Christianity in the early fourth century, traditionally dated to 301 CE, making Armenia the first state to adopt Christianity as its official religion. Gregory is venerated as a saint in the Armenian Apostolic Church and other Christian denominations.Gregory was the son of Anak, a Parthian nobleman who assassinated the Arsacid king of Armenia, Khosrov II. Following this act, Anak was executed, and Gregory narrowly escaped death with the help of his nurse. He was raised as a Christian in Caesarea of Cappadocia, part of the Roman Empire. Upon reaching adulthood, Gregory returned to Armenia and served King Tiridates III. After refusing to sacrifice to a pagan goddess, he was tortured and imprisoned in a deep pit called Khor Virap for 14 years. He was eventually released through the intervention of Tiridates' sister, Khosrovidukht.After his release, Gregory converted King Tiridates to Christianity, leading to the official adoption of Christianity in Armenia. He healed the king, who had been driven mad by his sins, and began preaching Christianity throughout the region. Gregory was consecrated as the bishop of Armenia in Caesarea and baptized the king and the Armenian people. He traveled across Armenia, destroying pagan temples and establishing churches in their place, including the original center of the Armenian Church at Ashtishat.Gregory later appointed his son Aristaces as his successor and chose to live as a hermit in the cave of Manē in Upper Armenia. His descendants, known as the Gregorids, held the office of Patriarch of Armenia until the fifth century. Gregory's death is traditionally placed shortly after the Council of Nicaea, with some sources suggesting 328 CE as the year of his passing. He was buried in the cave of Manē, and his relics were later moved to various locations, including the village of Thodanum.Gregory's legacy is significant in Armenian history, and he is often referred to as the Illuminator, with the Armenian Church sometimes called lusavorchakan, meaning 'of the Illuminator.' His contributions to the Christianization of Armenia and the establishment of the Armenian Apostolic Church have been recognized and commemorated in various forms of art and religious observance throughout the centuries.

Gregory the Illuminator

Constantine I, born on 27 February 272 in Naissus, Moesia Superior, served as Roman emperor from 306 to 337 CE. He was the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, significantly influencing its status within the Roman Empire. His reign marked a pivotal moment in the Christianization of the empire, particularly with the Edict of Milan in 313 CE, which legalized Christian practice and ended persecution. He founded Constantinople, which became the capital of the empire and remained so for over a thousand years.Constantine was the son of Flavius Constantius, a Roman army officer, and Helena, a woman of low birth. He spent his early years in the court of Diocletian, where he received a formal education. He served in various military campaigns, gaining recognition for his skills. After his father's death in 306 CE, Constantine was proclaimed emperor by his troops in Eboracum (York, England). He eventually triumphed over rivals Maxentius and Licinius, consolidating his power by 324 CE.Upon becoming emperor, Constantine implemented numerous reforms to strengthen the empire. He restructured the government, separating civil and military powers, and introduced the solidus, a gold coin that became a standard currency. He reorganized the army into mobile units and garrison troops, addressing threats from various tribes along the frontiers. His military campaigns included confrontations with the Franks, Alemanni, Goths, and Sarmatians, as he sought to reclaim territories lost during the Crisis of the Third Century.Although initially a pagan, Constantine began to favor Christianity around 312 CE, ultimately being baptized shortly before his death. He played a crucial role in the Edict of Milan, which established religious tolerance, and convened the First Council of Nicaea in 325 CE, which addressed key theological disputes. He commissioned the construction of significant churches, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.Constantine's reign represented a transition from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages. He established a new capital in Byzantium, renaming it Constantinople, which symbolized the integration of the Eastern and Western Roman Empire. His legacy included the establishment of dynastic succession, moving away from the Tetrarchy system. He was venerated as a saint in Eastern Christianity, and his reign is often viewed as a turning point in the history of the Roman Empire.Constantine's death occurred on 22 May 337 CE, after which he was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople. He was succeeded by his three sons, who continued his legacy. His reign is characterized by military victories, administrative reforms, and the promotion of Christianity, which laid the foundation for its dominance in the Roman world.

Constantine the Great

Cyril of Jerusalem, born around 313 CE, became a significant theologian in the Early Church. He was ordained a deacon by Bishop Macarius around 335 CE and later became a priest under Bishop Maximus. By the end of 350 CE, Cyril succeeded Maximus as Bishop of Jerusalem. His tenure was marked by conflict, particularly with Acacius of Caesarea, who opposed him due to theological differences and the growing prominence of Jerusalem as a Christian center. Cyril faced multiple exiles, first being deposed in 357 CE by a council influenced by Acacius, but was reinstated in 359 CE. He was exiled again in 360 CE and returned in 361 CE, only to be banished once more in 367 CE by Emperor Valens. After Valens's death in 378 CE, Cyril remained in Jerusalem until his death in 386 CE.Cyril's theological contributions include his catechetical lectures, which were aimed at instructing catechumens preparing for baptism. His twenty-three lectures are divided into two parts: the first eighteen, known as the Catechetical Lectures, and the final five, called the Mystagogic Catecheses. These lectures, delivered in the Martyrion, provided insights into Christian faith and practice, emphasizing the importance of repentance and moral living. Cyril's writings reflect a commitment to Nicene Orthodoxy, although he initially avoided the term homoousios. He articulated a view of sin as a consequence of free will and emphasized the significance of the Eucharist, asserting that the bread and wine are the true body and blood of Christ.Cyril's eschatological views were also notable. He recorded a miraculous appearance of a cross of light over Golgotha in 351 CE, interpreting it as a sign of divine support for Emperor Constantius and a herald of the Second Coming. He associated various events, including wars and natural disasters, with signs of the End Times, positioning Jerusalem as central to these eschatological expectations.Throughout his life, Cyril maintained a focus on themes of healing and forgiveness, both in his teachings and personal conduct. His legacy includes a strong emphasis on the loving nature of God and the importance of faith in the life of believers. Cyril's works have been influential in shaping Christian doctrine and liturgical practices, and he is venerated as a saint in multiple Christian traditions.

Cyril of Jerusalem

Jerome, known as Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus, was born in Stridon around 342–347 CE. He was of Illyrian descent and was not baptized until approximately 360–369 CE in Rome, where he studied rhetoric and philosophy. Jerome learned Latin and some Koine Greek under the philologist Aelius Donatus. During his studies, he engaged in the typical youthful pursuits of the time, which led to feelings of guilt that prompted him to visit the catacombs of martyrs on Sundays, reflecting on the terrors of Hell.Initially hesitant about Christianity, Jerome eventually embraced the faith and sought a life of asceticism. He spent time in the desert of Chalcis, where he studied Hebrew and corresponded with Jewish Christians. He copied a Hebrew Gospel, known as the Gospel of the Hebrews, and translated parts of it into Greek.Jerome became a protégé of Pope Damasus I and undertook a revision of the Vetus Latina Gospels in Rome, updating the Psalter based on the Septuagint. His close relationships with women, particularly prominent female ascetics, drew criticism from the Roman clergy. After Damasus's death in 384 CE, Jerome faced allegations regarding his relationship with the widow Paula, leading to his departure from Rome. Despite this, his writings were influential among women seeking to live ascetically.Jerome moved to Bethlehem, where he completed his translation of the Bible into Latin, known as the Vulgate, between 382 and 405 CE. He began by correcting the New Testament and later translated the Hebrew Bible, departing from the Septuagint, which had been the standard for previous Latin translations. His decision to use Hebrew texts was controversial among contemporaries, including Augustine. Jerome's translations and commentaries emphasized the differences between the Hebrew Bible and the Septuagint, and he identified certain texts as non-canonical.Jerome's historical writings included a reworking of Eusebius's Chronicon, which became influential in Latin Christendom. He also produced onomastica, lists of biblical names and places, which were widely used. His letters addressed various topics, including scholarship, moral guidance, and critiques of contemporary clergy, reflecting the social dynamics of his time.Jerome's theological contributions included opposition to Pelagianism and a nuanced view of eschatology, where he warned against false interpretations of Scripture. He believed that the Roman Empire was a restraining force against the 'mystery of iniquity' and anticipated the rise of the Antichrist. His writings on soteriology indicated a belief in temporal punishment for Christian sinners, contrasting with the eternal punishment of the Devil and unbelievers.Jerome is recognized as a saint and Doctor of the Church by the Catholic Church and is commemorated on 30 September. His extensive writings and translations established him as a key figure in early Christian scholarship, and he is regarded as the patron saint of translators and librarians.

Jerome

John Chrysostom, born around 347 CE in Antioch, Roman Syria, was a prominent Church Father and served as Archbishop of Constantinople. His father, a military officer, died shortly after John's birth, leaving him to be raised by his mother, Anthusa. The details of her faith are debated, with some sources suggesting she was either pagan or Christian. John was baptized in either 368 or 373 CE and began his education under the rhetorician Libanius, where he developed skills in rhetoric and a passion for Greek literature. He later studied theology under Diodorus of Tarsus, founder of the School of Antioch. After living as a hermit for two years, he returned to Antioch due to health issues.John was appointed as a reader in the church of Antioch and later ordained as a deacon in 381 CE. He became a presbyter in 388 CE and gained popularity for his eloquent preaching, particularly during his twelve years at the Golden Church in Antioch. His homilies emphasized moral teachings, charitable giving, and the application of Scripture to daily life. He was known for his direct style, contrasting with the allegorical interpretations common in Alexandria. His sermons often addressed social issues, urging the wealthy to care for the poor.In 397 CE, John was appointed Archbishop of Constantinople, nominated without his knowledge. His refusal to participate in lavish social events and his reforms of the clergy made him popular among the common people but unpopular with the wealthy and some clergy. His tenure was marked by conflict, particularly with Theophilus, the patriarch of Alexandria, and Aelia Eudoxia, the empress. John's denunciations of extravagance led to tensions, culminating in his deposition and banishment in 403 CE. He was briefly reinstated due to public outcry but was exiled again, this time to the Caucasus, where he continued to support anti-pagan laws.John Chrysostom died on 14 September 407 CE in Comana Pontica during his journey to exile. His last words were reportedly a declaration of gratitude to God. Following his death, he was quickly venerated as a saint, and his writings, including numerous homilies and letters, became influential in Christian theology. His feast days are celebrated on 14 September, 13 November, and 27 January in various Christian traditions. He is recognized as a Doctor of the Church in the Catholic Church and is honored as one of the Three Holy Hierarchs in the Eastern Orthodox Church.Chrysostom's legacy includes the Divine Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom, which remains a central part of Eastern Orthodox worship. His extensive writings, including sermons and theological treatises, have had a lasting impact on Christian thought and liturgy. His works continue to be studied and referenced in various Christian denominations, reflecting his significant role in the development of early Christian doctrine and practice.

John Chrysostom

Theodosius I, born on 11 January 347 in Hispania, was the Roman emperor from 379 to 395 CE. He was the son of Count Theodosius, a high-ranking general. Theodosius rose through the military ranks, achieving independent command in Moesia by 374 CE, where he successfully defended against Sarmatian invasions. After a period of retirement following his father's execution, he regained favor at the court of Emperor Gratian. Following the death of Eastern Emperor Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378 CE, Theodosius was appointed to address the military crisis. Despite his efforts, he could not expel the Goths, leading to a treaty in 382 CE that allowed them to settle as autonomous allies within the empire.Theodosius was a staunch supporter of Nicene Christianity and opposed Arianism. He convened the First Council of Constantinople in 381 CE, which affirmed the Nicene Creed as orthodoxy. Although he allowed some pagan practices to continue, he failed to prevent the destruction of several temples by Christian zealots. His reign began with him ruling the eastern provinces while Gratian and Valentinian II managed the west. In 386 CE, he married Galla, sister of Valentinian II, to strengthen political ties. Theodosius expanded Constantinople, notably enhancing the Forum Tauri.Theodosius engaged in military campaigns against usurpers Magnus Maximus and Eugenius in the west, achieving victory in 394 CE, which made him the sole ruler of the Roman Empire. He died on 17 January 395 CE, shortly after his final military success, and was succeeded by his sons Arcadius and Honorius, who became co-emperors. Theodosius was recognized for his administrative diligence and commitment to Christianity, and he presided over a revival in classical art, often referred to as the Theodosian renaissance.Theodosius's early life is not well-documented, but he likely grew up in a military environment due to his father's career. He first served in Britain during the Great Conspiracy and later commanded in Moesia. His rise to power was marked by political intrigue, particularly following the death of Valens. Upon becoming emperor, he faced the immediate challenge of the Gothic War, implementing strict recruitment measures to bolster his forces. Despite some military successes, he ultimately negotiated a settlement that allowed the Goths to remain within the empire as allies.Throughout his reign, Theodosius dealt with internal strife, including civil wars. He celebrated his quinquennalia in 383 CE, raising his son Arcadius to co-emperor. Theodosius's political maneuvers included negotiating peace with the Sasanian Empire in 386 CE and managing relations with the western provinces. His second civil war began in 392 CE after the death of Valentinian II, leading to a confrontation with Eugenius, whom he defeated in 394 CE.The Massacre of Thessalonica in 390 CE, which resulted in the deaths of many civilians, was a significant event during his reign. Theodosius's response to the riot that led to the massacre has been debated among historians, with some attributing direct responsibility to him. Following the incident, he sought to restore his image through public acts of penance, influenced by Bishop Ambrose of Milan.Theodosius's death marked the end of his direct influence over the empire, but his legacy continued through his sons. He was buried in Constantinople, where he was later venerated as a champion of Christian orthodoxy. His reign is often viewed as a pivotal moment in the transition from paganism to Christianity in the Roman Empire, although modern scholarship suggests that the decline of paganism was more gradual and complex than previously thought.

Theodosius I

Augustine of Hippo, born Aurelius Augustinus on 13 November 354 in Thagaste, Numidia (modern-day Souk Ahras, Algeria), served as a theologian, philosopher, and bishop of Hippo Regius. His writings significantly shaped Western philosophy and Christianity, marking him as a key figure among the Church Fathers during the Patristic Period. Notable works include The City of God, On Christian Doctrine, and Confessions.Augustine's early life was influenced by his mother, Monica, a devout Christian, and his father, Patricius, a pagan who converted shortly before his death. Augustine's family was likely of Berber descent but was Romanized, speaking Latin. He received a classical education, first in Thagaste and later in Carthage, where he became acquainted with various philosophies, including Manichaeanism and Neoplatonism. His youthful experiences included a hedonistic lifestyle and a long-term relationship with a woman, resulting in the birth of his son, Adeodatus.At the age of 31, Augustine underwent a profound conversion to Christianity in 386, influenced by the teachings of Ambrose of Milan and a pivotal moment when he heard a child's voice urging him to 'take up and read.' He was baptized by Ambrose on Easter Vigil in 387. Following his conversion, Augustine returned to Africa, where he sold his possessions to support the poor and established a monastic community.Augustine was ordained a priest in Hippo Regius in 391 and became the bishop of the city in 395. He was known for his eloquent preaching and extensive writings, which addressed various theological issues, including the nature of sin, grace, and the Church. His doctrine of original sin and the concept of just war were particularly influential. Augustine viewed the Church as a spiritual City of God, distinct from the material world, especially during the decline of the Western Roman Empire.Throughout his life, Augustine faced challenges from various sects, including the Donatists and Manichaeans, and he engaged in extensive theological debates. His writings often defended the Catholic Church's teachings against these groups. Augustine's thoughts on predestination, grace, and the nature of evil have had a lasting impact on Christian theology.Augustine died on 28 August 430 during the siege of Hippo by the Vandals. His legacy as a saint and Doctor of the Church was solidified posthumously, with his feast day celebrated on the anniversary of his death. His works continue to influence Christian thought and Western philosophy, establishing him as one of the most significant figures in the history of the Church.

Augustine of Hippo

Pope Innocent I served as the bishop of Rome from 401 CE until his death on 12 March 417 CE. He was recognized as a key figure in resolving ecclesiastical disputes across both the Eastern and Western regions of the Church. Innocent confirmed the authority of the Archbishop of Thessalonica and addressed disciplinary matters raised by the Bishop of Rouen. He supported the exiled John Chrysostom and engaged with African bishops regarding the Pelagian controversy, endorsing the decisions made by the synods in Africa.Innocent was born in Albano, as noted in the Liber Pontificalis, and was the son of a man named Innocentius. However, Jerome, a contemporary, referred to him as the son of Pope Anastasius I, which may indicate a hierarchical rather than a biological connection. Some sources suggest he was from Albania.Upon his election in 401 CE, Innocent actively sought to uphold the authority of the Roman apostolic See as the final arbiter in ecclesiastical matters. He communicated with various bishops, including Victricius of Rouen and Exuperius of Toulouse, and responded to John Chrysostom's appeal against Theophilus of Alexandria. Innocent took a firm stance on the Pelagian controversy, reinforcing the synod's decisions from Carthage in 416 CE, which condemned Cælestius, a proponent of Pelagianism. He also received letters from five African bishops, including St. Augustine, who detailed their views on the issue. Additionally, he acted as metropolitan over the bishops of Italia Suburbicaria.The historian Zosimus recorded that during the sack of Rome in 410 CE by Alaric I, Innocent permitted private pagan practices temporarily, although these efforts to restore public worship ultimately failed due to a lack of interest, indicating a significant shift towards Christianity in Rome. Innocent corresponded with Jerome and John II, Bishop of Jerusalem, addressing the challenges posed by Pelagians in Bethlehem. His depiction of the Church as a protective institution was later cited by Pope Gregory XVI in 1833 CE.Pope Innocent I died on 12 March 417 CE, and his feast day is celebrated on this date. His successor was Zosimus. In 405 CE, he sent a list of sacred books to Exsuperius of Toulouse, which closely resembled the canon established at the Council of Trent over a millennium later, with some debate regarding the number of Pauline letters. This list followed Athanasius of Alexandria's earlier identification of the canon in 367 CE.In 846 CE, Pope Sergius II authorized the transfer of Innocent's relics, along with those of his father Anastasius, to the crypt of the former collegiate church of Gandersheim, where they remain today. Additional relics were also taken to The Church of Our Lady St Mary of Glastonbury upon its consecration.

Pope Innocent I

Nestorius of Constantinople, born around 386 in Germanicia, Syria, served as Archbishop of Constantinople from 10 April 428 to 11 July 431. He was educated at the Catechetical School of Antioch under Theodore of Mopsuestia and became known for his sermons. His appointment as Patriarch followed the death of Sisinnius I. Nestorius' teachings on Christology and Mariology sparked significant controversy, particularly regarding the title Theotokos, or 'God-Bearer,' for Mary, which he cautiously accepted but preferred the title Christotokos, or 'Christ-Bearer.' He believed that Christ's human and divine natures should not be confused, advocating for a prosopic union of these natures rather than a hypostatic union.In 431, the Council of Ephesus, led by Cyril of Alexandria, condemned Nestorius for heresy, resulting in his deposition. Nestorius did not attend the council, instead seeking retirement. A counter-council convened by John I of Antioch attempted to vindicate him, leading to further disputes. Initially supported by Emperor Theodosius II, Nestorius was later exiled to Upper Egypt in 435, where he continued to defend his views until his death around 451.His opponents, particularly Cyril, accused him of dividing Christ into two persons, a claim that remains debated among scholars. Eusebius of Dorylaeum was among the first to label Nestorius a heretic, and the conflict escalated as Cyril sought papal support from Pope Celestine I. The council proceedings were tumultuous, with both sides appealing to the emperor, who ultimately ordered the deposition of both Nestorius and Cyril, though Cyril was later reinstated.Following his exile, Nestorius lived in a monastery in the Great Oasis of Hibis, where he was injured during bandit attacks. His writings, including letters and sermons, were largely destroyed, but his defense, the Bazaar of Heracleides, survived in Syriac translation. This work, written around 450, argues against the charges of heresy and presents his theological views, which some scholars now argue align with later Chalcedonian theology.Despite his condemnation in the Byzantine Empire, Nestorius' teachings found a following in the Church of the East, which did not accept his condemnation. This led to the designation of the 'Nestorian Church' for the Church of the East, where his ideas were considered orthodox. Nestorius is revered as a significant figure in this tradition, and his influence persists in the East Syriac Eucharistic Service, which includes prayers attributed to him.

Nestorius

Benedict of Nursia, born around 480 CE in Nursia, Umbria, was the son of a Roman noble. He was sent to Rome for studies but became disillusioned with the academic environment. Seeking a different path, he left Rome with his nurse and settled in Enfide, near Subiaco. There, he encountered Romanus, a monk who introduced him to monastic life. Following Romanus' guidance, Benedict became a hermit, living in a cave for three years, where he deepened his spiritual understanding and gained respect from the local community.After his time as a hermit, Benedict was persuaded to become the abbot of a nearby monastery. However, his leadership faced challenges, including an attempt on his life by the monks, who tried to poison him. After this incident, he returned to his cave. He then founded twelve monasteries in the Subiaco area and, around 530 CE, established the renowned monastery of Monte Cassino, situated between Rome and Naples.Benedict's most significant contribution is the Rule of Saint Benedict, a set of guidelines for monastic life that emphasizes balance, moderation, and community living under the authority of an abbot. This Rule, influenced by earlier monastic writings, became foundational for many religious communities in the Middle Ages and remains influential in Western monasticism today.Benedict died on 21 March 547 CE at Monte Cassino, shortly after the death of his sister, Scholastica. He was buried in the same tomb. His legacy as a patron saint of Europe was recognized by Pope Paul VI in 1964, and he is commemorated by various Christian denominations on different dates, primarily on 11 July. The Rule of Saint Benedict continues to guide monastic practices, reflecting his lasting impact on Christian monasticism.

Benedict of Nursia

Pope Gregory I, also known as Saint Gregory the Great, was born around 540 CE in Rome. He was the son of Gordianus, a Roman senator and prefect, and Silvia, who came from a noble family. Gregory's lineage included a pope, Felix III, making his family prominent in the church. He received a comprehensive education in grammar, rhetoric, and law, eventually becoming the Prefect of Rome by the age of thirty. Following his father's death, he converted the family villa into a monastery dedicated to Saint Andrew and embraced monastic life.In 579 CE, Gregory was appointed as apocrisiarius, or papal ambassador, to the imperial court in Constantinople. His tenure was marked by unsuccessful appeals for military aid against the Lombards, as the Byzantine Empire was preoccupied with conflicts in the East. Gregory engaged in theological disputes with Patriarch Eutychius of Constantinople, which culminated in a public debate that influenced his later papacy. He returned to Rome in 585 CE and was elected pope in 590 CE, following the death of Pope Pelagius II.As pope, Gregory focused on revitalizing the church's missionary efforts, notably sending Augustine of Canterbury to convert the Anglo-Saxons in Britain. He emphasized the importance of proper worship and liturgical practices, leading to significant reforms in the Mass and the development of Gregorian chant, which became a standard form of plainchant in the Western church. Gregory's administration was characterized by a strong commitment to charitable works, particularly in response to the needs of the poor in Rome, who were suffering from the effects of Lombard invasions and famine.Gregory established an extensive system for distributing alms and managing church resources, viewing the church's wealth as a stewardship for the poor. He implemented a structured approach to charitable relief, ensuring that food and assistance reached those in need. His efforts garnered the support of the Roman populace, who increasingly looked to the papacy for leadership in the absence of effective governance from Constantinople.Gregory's writings, including 'Moralia in Job,' 'Pastoral Care,' and 'Dialogues,' contributed to his reputation as a significant theological figure. He is recognized as one of the four Great Latin Church Fathers and was canonized shortly after his death on 12 March 604 CE. His legacy includes the title 'Servant of the Servants of God,' which he popularized, and he is venerated as a saint in multiple Christian denominations. Gregory's influence on the church and its practices established him as a pivotal figure in the transition from antiquity to the medieval period.

Pope Gregory I

Augustine of Canterbury, who lived from the early 6th century until his death on 26 May 604 CE, was a Christian monk and the first archbishop of Canterbury. He was appointed by Pope Gregory the Great in 595 CE to lead a mission, known as the Gregorian mission, to convert the Anglo-Saxons in Britain, particularly targeting King Æthelberht of Kent, who was influential among neighboring kingdoms. Æthelberht's marriage to Bertha, a Christian princess from the Franks, was a significant factor in the selection of Kent as the mission's destination.Augustine and his group of about 40 companions set sail from Rome, but they initially hesitated and considered returning. Pope Gregory encouraged them to continue, and in 597 CE, they landed on the Isle of Thanet. Augustine and his companions were welcomed by Æthelberht, who allowed them to preach and provided land for a monastery outside Canterbury. Æthelberht converted to Christianity, and Augustine baptized many of his subjects, including thousands during a mass baptism on Christmas Day in 597 CE. Pope Gregory sent additional missionaries in 601 CE, along with letters and gifts, although attempts to gain the submission of native British bishops to Augustine's authority were unsuccessful.Augustine established his episcopal see at Canterbury and founded the monastery of Saints Peter and Paul, later known as St Augustine's Abbey. He was consecrated as a bishop, although the exact details of his consecration are unclear. By 601 CE, Augustine had reported significant conversions, and he sent Laurence back to Rome with inquiries about church organization and governance. Further missionaries arrived from Rome, bringing a pallium for Augustine, which signified his metropolitan status. Gregory instructed Augustine to consecrate 12 suffragan bishops and to send a bishop to York, although the planned transfer of the archiepiscopal see to London did not occur.In 604 CE, Augustine founded two additional bishoprics in Britain, consecrating Mellitus as Bishop of London and Justus as Bishop of Rochester. He worked to restore a church in Canterbury, which may have been a reconsecration of a Roman-era building. Augustine's mission faced challenges in extending authority to Christians in Wales and Dumnonia, as the British bishops were reluctant to recognize his leadership. A meeting in 603 CE with these bishops ended in failure due to misunderstandings and differences in church practices.Augustine's efforts included consecrating temples for Christian use and adapting local customs to align with Christian practices. He established a school in Canterbury, contributing to the training of clergy. Before his death, Augustine consecrated Laurence as his successor to ensure continuity in leadership. Augustine died on 26 May 604 CE, having established a foundation for Christianity in England, particularly in Kent. His close relationship with Æthelberht facilitated his mission's success, and he became a significant figure in the spread of Christianity across the British Isles.Augustine was initially buried in St Augustine's Abbey, which later became a site of pilgrimage. His legacy was promoted after the Norman Conquest, and his shrine became a central place of veneration. Various accounts of Augustine's life emerged in the medieval period, often embellished with miraculous stories. His influence persisted through the establishment of the church in England, despite the loss of his relics during the English Reformation. A modern shrine was re-established in 2012 CE at the church of St. Augustine in Ramsgate, near the site of his landing.

Augustine of Canterbury

Pope Leo IX, born Bruno von Egisheim-Dagsburg on 21 June 1002, served as the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 12 February 1049 until his death on 19 April 1054. He was a significant figure in the history of the Church, playing a crucial role in the events leading to the Great Schism of 1054, which marked the formal separation of the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches.Bruno was the youngest son of Count Hugh IV of Nordgau and Hedwig of Dagsburg, hailing from Egisheim in Upper Alsace. At the age of five, he was placed under the care of Berthold, Bishop of Toul, who educated him. By 1017, Bruno had become a canon at St. Stephen's in Toul. Following the ascension of his cousin Conrad II to the throne in 1024, Bruno served at the royal court. He was appointed deacon in 1026 and later became Bishop of Toul in 1027, where he managed the diocese for over twenty years amidst challenges such as famine and warfare.Bruno gained recognition for his reformist zeal, particularly in promoting the Cluniac reforms. He was involved in diplomatic efforts that strengthened ties between the Holy Roman Empire and France. His leadership contributed to the stability of the region, and he successfully defended his diocese against local rebellions.Upon the death of Pope Damasus II in 1048, Bruno was elected pope by an assembly in Worms, with the condition that he would be canonically elected in Rome. He arrived in Rome in February 1049, where he was consecrated as Pope Leo IX. He emphasized clerical celibacy and took significant steps to combat simony during his papacy. His Easter synod in 1049 reaffirmed the requirement of celibacy for clergy and addressed issues of simony.Throughout his papacy, Leo IX traveled extensively across Italy, Germany, and France, presiding over various synods and councils. He sought to unify the Church and address theological disputes, including the teachings of Berengar of Tours. His efforts included a notable council at Mainz, which involved representatives from various regions and addressed clerical marriage and simony.Leo IX's relations with the Eastern Church were strained, particularly with Patriarch Michael I Cerularius of Constantinople. The patriarch criticized Latin practices, prompting Leo to assert the primacy of the Roman papacy. In 1054, Leo sent a legate to negotiate with Michael, but the discussions ended with mutual excommunications, marking a pivotal moment in the East-West Schism.Leo IX also faced challenges from the Normans in southern Italy. In response to Byzantine appeals for help against Norman incursions, he led a military campaign but suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Civitate in June 1053. Following his capture, he was held in Benevento until he acknowledged Norman territorial gains. He returned to Rome shortly before his death in April 1054.

Pope Leo IX

Anselm of Canterbury, also known as Anselm of Aosta and Anselm of Bec, was born in or around Aosta in Upper Burgundy between April 1033 and April 1034. His family background included a Lombard noble father, Gundulph, and a mother, Ermenberge, who was likely of noble descent herself. Anselm's early life was marked by a desire to enter monastic life, which he pursued after the death of his mother and his father's subsequent entry into a monastery. At the age of 27, he became a novice at the Benedictine abbey of Bec in Normandy, where he began to develop his philosophical and theological ideas.Anselm was elected prior of Bec in 1063 and later became its abbot in 1078. Under his leadership, the abbey became a prominent center of learning in Europe. He wrote significant works, including the Monologion and Proslogion, which laid the groundwork for Scholasticism. His philosophical contributions included the formulation of the ontological argument for the existence of God and the satisfaction theory of atonement.Following the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, Anselm's abbey acquired extensive lands in England. He became a close associate of Lanfranc, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and was favored as a potential successor. After Lanfranc's death in 1089, Anselm was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury in 1093, despite opposition from King William II, who sought to control the church's lands and appointments. Anselm's insistence on the church's independence led to conflicts with the monarchy, resulting in his exile twice, first from 1097 to 1100 and again from 1105 to 1107.During his first exile, Anselm attended the Council of Bari, where he influenced the Greek bishops of southern Italy to adopt Roman rites. His return to England was marked by continued tensions with King Henry I, who succeeded William II. Anselm's efforts to assert the primacy of Canterbury over York and the Welsh bishops were met with resistance, and he faced further challenges regarding the investiture of bishops. Despite these conflicts, Anselm successfully convened a general church council in London in 1102, which established reforms aligned with the Gregorian Reform.Anselm's final years were spent in the duties of his archbishopric, where he continued to advocate for the church's autonomy. He died on 21 April 1109, and his remains were interred at Canterbury Cathedral. Anselm was canonized as a saint, and his feast day is celebrated on the anniversary of his death. He was later proclaimed a Doctor of the Church in 1720, recognized for his significant contributions to theology and philosophy.

Anselm of Canterbury

Hildegard of Bingen, also known as Hildegard von Bingen, was born around 1098 to Mechtild of Merxheim-Nahet and Hildebert of Bermersheim, members of the lower nobility in service to Count Meginhard of Sponheim. She was the youngest of ten children, though records indicate only seven siblings. Hildegard experienced visions from a young age, which she described as the umbra viventis lucis, or the reflection of the living Light.At the age of eight, Hildegard was offered as an oblate to the Benedictine monastery at Disibodenberg, where she was enclosed with Jutta, a visionary and daughter of Count Stephan II of Sponheim. Hildegard learned to read and write under Jutta's guidance and assisted in various tasks within the monastery. Following Jutta's death in 1136, Hildegard was elected magistra of the community. Seeking greater independence, she founded the monastery of Rupertsberg in 1150 after receiving approval from Archbishop Henry I of Mainz. In 1165, she established a second monastery at Eibingen.Hildegard's writings encompass theological, botanical, and medicinal works, as well as letters and musical compositions. Her first major work, Scivias, was completed between 1142 and 1151 and contains 26 visionary experiences. In 1148, Pope Eugenius III endorsed her writings, granting her authority to document her visions as divine revelations. Hildegard's other significant works include Liber Vitae Meritorum and Liber Divinorum Operum, which explore moral life and the relationship between God and creation, respectively.Hildegard composed numerous musical pieces, including the morality play Ordo Virtutum, which is one of the earliest known musical dramas. Her music is characterized by soaring melodies and a unique style that distinguishes it from traditional Gregorian chant. She also wrote extensively on medicinal practices, documenting her knowledge of herbs and holistic healing in works such as Physica and Causae et Curae.Hildegard invented a constructed language known as Lingua Ignota, consisting of approximately 1,000 nouns. Her correspondence with prominent figures of her time, including popes and emperors, reflects her influence and the respect she garnered as a theologian and visionary. Hildegard's hagiography, Vita Sanctae Hildegardis, was compiled posthumously by Theoderic of Echternach, drawing on earlier works by Godfrey of Disibodenberg and Guibert of Gembloux.Hildegard died on 17 September 1179. Her legacy as a composer, writer, and healer has endured, leading to her recognition as a saint in various regional calendars of the Catholic Church. In 2012, Pope Benedict XVI extended her veneration to the entire Catholic Church and named her a Doctor of the Church, acknowledging her contributions to theology and natural science.

Hildegard of Bingen

Giovanni di Pietro di Bernardone, known as Francis of Assisi, was born around 1181 in Assisi, Italy, to Pietro di Bernardone, a wealthy silk merchant, and Pica di Bourlemont, a noblewoman from France. His father was in France for business when Francis was born, and upon his return, he nicknamed his son Francesco, possibly in honor of his own success in trade. Francis enjoyed a privileged upbringing, indulging in the pleasures of youth, including fine clothing and socializing with friends. However, he experienced a significant change in perspective after an encounter with a beggar, which led him to give away his money and begin questioning his lifestyle.In 1202, Francis participated in a military campaign against Perugia but was captured and imprisoned for a year. Following his release, he returned to his former life until a vision prompted him to abandon worldly pursuits. He began to embrace a life of poverty and service, which included begging and caring for lepers. A pivotal moment occurred when he received a vision at the chapel of San Damiano, where he believed Christ instructed him to repair the Church. This led him to sell his father's goods to fund the restoration of the chapel, resulting in a conflict with his father and ultimately his renunciation of familial ties and wealth.Francis spent time wandering as a beggar and restoring various chapels around Assisi. In 1208, he gathered a small group of followers and established the Order of Friars Minor, which emphasized a life of poverty and preaching. By 1209, he sought papal approval for his order from Pope Innocent III, who granted informal recognition. The order grew rapidly, and in 1212, Clare of Assisi joined him, leading to the establishment of the Order of Poor Clares for women. Francis later formed the Third Order for laypeople who wished to live according to his principles without taking formal vows.Francis sought to spread his message beyond Italy. He traveled to Spain, where he reportedly healed a nobleman's son, and attempted to reach Jerusalem, though he was shipwrecked. During the Fifth Crusade in 1219, he traveled to Egypt to meet Sultan Al-Kamil, hoping to convert him or become a martyr. He preached to the Sultan, who received him kindly, although the details of their encounter remain unclear. Francis returned to Italy, where he continued to expand the order and reorganize its structure, leading to the creation of a more formal rule approved by Pope Honorius III in 1223.In 1224, while praying on Mount La Verna, Francis is said to have received the stigmata, the wounds of Christ, during a vision. His health declined in the following years, and he suffered from various ailments, including blindness. He spent his final days at the Porziuncola, dictating his spiritual testament. Francis died on 3 October 1226 and was canonized by Pope Gregory IX on 16 July 1228. His burial site became a place of veneration, and he was later recognized as the patron saint of animals and ecology. His feast day is celebrated on 4 October, and he is remembered for his deep connection to nature and commitment to peace.

Francis of Assisi

Chiara Offreduccio, known as Clare of Assisi, was born on 16 July 1194 in Assisi to a noble family. Her father, Favarone Sciffi, was a wealthy count, and her mother, Ortolana, was devout and had undertaken several pilgrimages. Clare was the eldest of three daughters, and her family was influential in Assisi. From a young age, Clare was educated in Christian values and became deeply religious. At the age of 12, her parents arranged for her to marry, but she resisted, expressing a desire to remain unmarried until she was 18. Clare's life changed when she heard St. Francis preach, which inspired her to seek a life dedicated to the Gospel.On Palm Sunday, 20 March 1212, Clare left her home with the consent of the bishop of Assisi, Guido II. She met Francis at the chapel of the Porziuncula, where she cut her hair and donned a simple robe, symbolizing her commitment to a life of poverty. Initially, Clare was placed in a Benedictine convent, but her family attempted to bring her back, using both persuasion and force. Clare's determination led her to cling to the altar, revealing her cropped hair, which ultimately dissuaded her family from further attempts to reclaim her.Clare and her sister, Agnes, who joined her shortly after, lived in seclusion and poverty, following a rule of life established by Francis. They became known as the 'Poor Ladies of San Damiano.' As more women joined them, the community grew, and Clare became its leader. The order was characterized by strict adherence to poverty, manual labor, and prayer, with members living in enclosure. Clare was appointed abbess in 1216, a role she accepted reluctantly, preferring to serve her sisters humbly.After Francis's death, Clare worked to expand her order and maintain its commitment to poverty, despite challenges from church authorities. The Fourth Lateran Council of 1215 required new religious communities to adopt established rules, which threatened Clare's vision. She sought papal approval for her rule of strict poverty, which was granted by Pope Innocent III and later reaffirmed by Pope Gregory IX, despite initial concerns for the health of the sisters.Clare wrote a Rule of Life that emphasized non-possession and was approved by Pope Innocent IV shortly before her death on 11 August 1253. During her final years, she faced health issues but remained devoted to her community. Her remains were interred at the chapel of San Giorgio, and her funeral was marked by the performance of the Office for the Virgin Saints, a decision that expedited her canonization process.Clare was canonized by Pope Alexander IV on 26 September 1255, and her feast day was established on 11 August. The Basilica of Saint Clare was constructed in Assisi, where her relics were transferred in 1260. The Order of Poor Ladies was renamed the Order of Saint Clare in 1263, recognizing her contributions to the Franciscan tradition. Clare's legacy endures through her writings, the continued existence of her order, and her recognition as a saint in various Christian traditions.

Clare of Assisi

Anthony of Padua, born Fernando Martins de Bulhões on 15 August 1195 in Lisbon, Portugal, was a Catholic priest and a member of the Order of Friars Minor. He came from a wealthy family and received his education at the local cathedral school. At the age of 15, he joined the Canons Regular of the Order of the Holy Cross at the Abbey of Saint Vincent. Seeking a more contemplative life, he transferred to the Monastery of the Holy Cross in Coimbra, where he studied theology and Latin.After his ordination, Anthony served as guestmaster at the abbey. His life changed when he encountered the Friars Minor, who had recently established a presence in Portugal. Inspired by the martyrdom of five Franciscans in Morocco, he sought to join their order. Upon joining, he adopted the name Anthony and initially aimed to travel to Morocco. However, after falling ill, he returned to Portugal, eventually landing in Sicily due to a storm. He later moved to Tuscany, where he was assigned to a rural hermitage, allowing him time for prayer and study.In 1222, Anthony's preaching abilities became evident during an ordination in Forlì, where he delivered an impromptu sermon that impressed many. His reputation as a preacher grew, leading to his assignment in Bologna, where he caught the attention of Francis of Assisi. Recognizing Anthony's talents, Francis entrusted him with the education of the friars. Anthony's teachings and sermons became highly regarded, and he was known for his eloquence and deep knowledge of scripture.Anthony's preaching included notable incidents, such as the story of him preaching to fish in Rimini, where he attracted a crowd of fish while addressing heretics. He also performed miracles, including a demonstration of faith when he consumed poisoned food without harm. His health declined in 1231, leading him to seek rest at Camposampiero. He died on 13 June 1231 at the Poor Clare monastery in Arcella, near Padua, at the age of 35.Less than a year after his death, Anthony was canonized by Pope Gregory IX on 30 May 1232. His teachings were later recognized for their spiritual depth, leading to his designation as a Doctor of the Church by Pope Pius XII in 1946. Anthony became widely venerated as the patron saint of lost items and is celebrated in various cultures, particularly in Portugal, Spain, and Brazil, where he is associated with marriage and reconciliation. His legacy includes the Basilica of Saint Anthony of Padua, built shortly after his death, which remains a significant site of pilgrimage and devotion.

Anthony of Padua

Thomas Aquinas, born around 1225 in Roccasecca, Italy, was a Dominican friar and priest who became a leading figure in Scholasticism, a school of thought that sought to reconcile faith and reason. He was the youngest of four sons in a noble family, and his father, Landulf VI, was a knight serving the Holy Roman Emperor. Initially, Thomas was expected to pursue a military career or follow his uncle into the abbacy. He began his education at the Benedictine monastery of Monte Cassino and later attended the University of Naples, where he was introduced to the works of Aristotle and other philosophers.At the age of nineteen, Thomas decided to join the Dominican Order, a choice that met with strong opposition from his family. His brothers imprisoned him for nearly a year to dissuade him from his decision. During this time, he continued to study and communicate with the Dominicans. Eventually, his mother arranged for his escape, allowing him to join the order. He studied at the University of Paris under Albertus Magnus, who recognized his potential and appointed him as a teacher. Thomas's quiet demeanor led some to label him as slow, but Albertus famously predicted that he would make a significant impact in the world of theology.Thomas returned to Paris in 1252 to pursue a master's degree in theology, where he wrote extensively, including commentaries on the Bible and Aristotle. He became a regent master in theology at Paris in 1256, during which he defended the mendicant orders and engaged in public debates on various theological issues. His major works from this period include the 'Summa contra Gentiles' and 'Disputed Questions on Truth.' He also developed a friendship with Saint Bonaventure, although they had differing views on the relationship between faith and reason.In 1259, Thomas returned to Naples, where he served as a general preacher and wrote liturgical texts, including hymns for the feast of Corpus Christi. He was later summoned to Rome by Pope Clement IV to serve as papal theologian and to establish a new studium provinciale for the Dominicans. During this time, he began his most famous work, the 'Summa Theologiae,' intended as a comprehensive guide for beginners in theology.Thomas's second regency at the University of Paris began in 1268, where he faced challenges from the rise of Averroism, a philosophical movement that interpreted Aristotle in ways that conflicted with Christian doctrine. He wrote against these ideas and continued to develop his own theological positions. His later years were marked by mystical experiences and a deepening of his theological insights. In 1273, he experienced a profound vision that led him to abandon his writing, declaring that all he had written seemed like straw compared to what he had seen.Thomas was summoned to attend the Second Council of Lyon in 1274 but fell ill on the way. He died on March 7, 1274, while at the Cistercian Abbey of Fossanova. His works, particularly the 'Summa Theologiae,' became foundational texts in Catholic theology. He was canonized as a saint in 1323 and declared a Doctor of the Church. His philosophical and theological ideas, known as Thomism, have had a lasting influence on Western thought, particularly in ethics, metaphysics, and the relationship between faith and reason.

Thomas Aquinas

Eckhart von Hochheim, commonly known as Meister Eckhart, was born around 1260 in the village of Tambach, near Gotha, in the Landgraviate of Thuringia, within the Holy Roman Empire. His family background remains largely unknown, and the name Johannes, sometimes attributed to him, lacks historical basis. Eckhart joined the Dominican convent at Erfurt around 1278, likely studying at Cologne and possibly at the University of Paris. By 1294, he was a baccalaureus and preached at the Dominican convent of St. Jacques in Paris. He became Prior at Erfurt and later served as the Dominican Provincial of Thuringia. His early vernacular work, Reden der Unterweisung, dates from approximately 1295 to 1298. In 1302, he returned to Paris to teach theology, remaining until 1303, after which he became Provincial superior for Saxony, overseeing numerous convents.In 1311, Eckhart was appointed as a teacher at Paris again, a rare honor. He spent part of the following years in Strasbourg, focusing on spiritual direction and preaching. By late 1323 or early 1324, he moved to Cologne, where he continued to preach amid growing concerns about heretical movements. The Dominican General Chapter in Venice in 1325 expressed worries about certain teachings attributed to him. An investigation into his orthodoxy was initiated, leading to an inquisitorial trial ordered by the Archbishop of Cologne in 1326. Eckhart defended his teachings but ultimately faced condemnation. He appealed to the Pope and traveled to Avignon, where his case was reviewed. He died around January 28, 1328, before a verdict was reached.Pope John XXII later issued a bull on March 27, 1329, characterizing some of Eckhart's teachings as heretical. Despite this, Eckhart's influence persisted, particularly through his association with the Friends of God and his disciples, Johannes Tauler and Henry Suso. His works, especially his sermons, emphasized the presence of God within the individual soul and the importance of detachment. Eckhart's theological views included a distinction between God and the Godhead, reflecting Neoplatonic influences. His teachings on spiritual transformation and the nature of God contributed to his reputation as a significant mystic in the medieval period.After his death, Eckhart's writings were largely forgotten until the 19th century, when interest in his work was revived, particularly among German Romantics and Idealist philosophers. The discovery of manuscripts and critical editions of his works in the late 19th and early 20th centuries further solidified his place in the philosophical and mystical traditions. Scholars have debated the authenticity of various texts attributed to him, with a critical edition recognizing a number of his Latin and vernacular works. Eckhart's legacy continues to be studied and appreciated in contemporary spirituality and philosophy.

Meister Eckhart

John Wycliffe, born around 1328 in Hipswell, Yorkshire, was an English philosopher, reformer, and priest. He became a prominent figure at the University of Oxford, where he was influenced by the works of Thomas Bradwardine and the societal upheaval caused by the Black Death. Wycliffe was ordained as a priest in 1351 and began to develop his theological views, which included a critique of the clergy's moral failings and a belief in the necessity of poverty among church leaders.Wycliffe completed his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1356 and later became Master of Balliol College. His early writings reflected his apocalyptic views, particularly in response to the plague, which he interpreted as a sign of divine judgment on the clergy. By 1361, he was appointed to the parish of Fillingham, and in 1365, he became the head of Canterbury Hall. His academic career was marked by conflicts with monastic authorities, culminating in an appeal to Rome in 1367, which was ultimately unsuccessful.In 1374, Wycliffe was involved in a commission to negotiate with the papacy, after which he began to publish works that criticized the church's temporal power and wealth. His treatise, De civili dominio, argued for the divestment of church property and the necessity of clerical poverty. This work, along with his other writings, positioned him as a significant dissident within the church, leading to his first condemnation by Pope Gregory XI in 1377.Wycliffe's ideas gained traction among the nobility, particularly John of Gaunt, who supported his critiques of the church. However, his views on transubstantiation and the authority of the papacy led to further conflicts. In 1381, he articulated his doctrine of the Lord's Supper, which was met with condemnation from the church. The Peasants' Revolt of 1381, which some attributed to Wycliffe's teachings, further complicated his position, although he disapproved of the violence.In 1382, an ecclesiastical assembly declared several of Wycliffe's propositions heretical. Despite this, he maintained support from some members of the court and Parliament. He suffered a stroke in 1383, which limited his ability to defend his views. Wycliffe continued to advocate for a reformed church, emphasizing the need for itinerant preachers who lived in poverty and preached the Gospel directly to the people.Wycliffe died on 31 December 1384 in Lutterworth. His later works emphasized the authority of Scripture and criticized the papacy and monasticism. After his death, he was posthumously declared a heretic by the Council of Constance in 1415, and his remains were exhumed and burned in 1428. Wycliffe's legacy includes his influence on later reformers, particularly Jan Hus, and his role in the early movement for English translations of the Bible, known as Wycliffe's Bible, which aimed to make Scripture accessible to the laity.

John Wycliffe

Jan Hus, born around 1369 in Husinec, southern Bohemia, was a Czech theologian and philosopher who became a prominent Church reformer and a key figure in the Bohemian Reformation. He was influenced by the teachings of John Wycliffe and is often regarded as a precursor to Protestantism. After being ordained as a Catholic priest, Hus began preaching in Prague, where he criticized various practices of the Catholic Church, including simony and the sale of indulgences. He served as a master, dean, and rector at Charles University in Prague from 1409 to 1410.In 1409, Hus's opposition to the Church led to his excommunication by Pope Alexander V, although this was not initially enforced. He continued to preach and criticized Alexander's successor, Antipope John XXIII, for the sale of indulgences. Following the enforcement of his excommunication, Hus spent two years in exile. In 1414, he was invited to the Council of Constance to present his views, under the promise of safe conduct. Upon arrival, he was arrested and imprisoned.During his trial, Hus refused to recant his teachings, asserting that he would only do so if proven wrong by Scripture. On 6 July 1415, he was condemned for heresy and executed by burning at the stake. His death incited outrage among his followers, known as Hussites, who subsequently rejected the authority of the Catholic Church and engaged in the Hussite Wars from 1420 to 1431, successfully resisting multiple papal crusades.Hus's early life is not well-documented, but he was sent to a monastery at a young age, likely due to his father's death or his own religious devotion. He later attended the University of Prague, where he earned a Bachelor of Arts in 1393 and a master's degree in 1396. His academic career began in 1398, and he became a vocal advocate for reform, influenced by Wycliffe's writings, which he translated into Czech.The Western Schism of 1408 divided the University of Prague, with Hus leading the Czech nation in a call for neutrality. The Kutná Hora Decree of January 1409 increased the power of the Czech nation at the university, leading to the departure of many German scholars. Hus's support for Antipope Alexander V further alienated him from the Church, culminating in his excommunication and the burning of Wycliffe's works.Hus's writings, particularly his treatise De Ecclesia, emphasized the idea that the true Church consists of the faithful rather than the clergy. His teachings gained traction in Bohemia, leading to a growing movement against the Church's practices. After his execution, the Hussite movement continued to thrive, with various factions emerging, including the Utraquists and Taborites, who sought to reform the Church and society.Hus's legacy is significant in the context of the Reformation, influencing later reformers like Martin Luther. His emphasis on Scripture and criticism of Church corruption laid the groundwork for future religious movements. The Hussite Wars ultimately led to the Basel Compacts, allowing for a reformed Church in Bohemia, which persisted for centuries. Jan Hus remains a symbol of religious reform and national identity in the Czech Republic.

Jan Hus

Martin Luther was born on 10 November 1483 in Eisleben, County of Mansfeld, in the Holy Roman Empire. He was ordained as a priest in 1507 and later became a prominent theologian and professor. Luther's theological beliefs laid the foundation for Lutheranism and marked him as a key figure in the Protestant Reformation. He rejected several teachings of the Roman Catholic Church, particularly concerning indulgences and papal authority. In 1517, he authored the Ninety-five Theses, which initiated a significant debate on these issues.In 1520, Pope Leo X demanded that Luther renounce his writings. Luther's refusal led to his excommunication in January 1521. Later that year, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V declared him an outlaw at the Diet of Worms. Luther's teachings emphasized that justification is a gift of God's grace received through faith in Jesus Christ, rather than through human actions or merits. He argued that good works are a necessary outcome of genuine faith and that the Bible is the sole source of divine revelation, challenging the authority of the pope and bishops.Luther translated the Bible into German, making it accessible to the laity and influencing the development of the German language. His hymns contributed to the practice of congregational singing in Protestant churches. He married Katharina von Bora, a former nun, which established a precedent for clerical marriage in Protestantism.In his later writings, such as On the Jews and Their Lies, Luther expressed antisemitic views, advocating for the expulsion of Jews and the destruction of their synagogues. His rhetoric has been linked to the rise of antisemitism in Germany, although he did not directly call for violence against them.Luther was educated in various Latin schools and later attended the University of Erfurt, where he initially studied law before turning to theology. His decision to become a monk was influenced by a near-death experience during a thunderstorm in 1505. He joined the Augustinian order and later became a professor at the University of Wittenberg, where he lectured on the Psalms and other biblical texts.His theological insights culminated in the doctrine of justification by faith, which he articulated in his writings, including On the Bondage of the Will. The sale of indulgences by Johann Tetzel in 1516 prompted Luther to write the Ninety-five Theses, which criticized the practice and questioned the pope's authority. The theses gained widespread attention, leading to a series of confrontations with church authorities.After being excommunicated, Luther continued to write and preach, advocating for reforms in church practices. He returned to Wittenberg in 1522 to address radical reforms initiated by others and sought to restore order. His writings during this period included critiques of the mass and monastic vows, emphasizing the importance of faith and scripture.Luther's marriage in 1525 marked a significant shift in clerical practices, as he publicly endorsed the idea of clergy marrying. He also focused on organizing the church, establishing a new form of worship, and creating catechisms to educate congregants. His translation of the Bible was completed in 1534, and he continued to refine it throughout his life.In his later years, Luther faced health issues and continued to write extensively. He died on 18 February 1546 in Eisleben after a series of negotiations concerning his family's business interests. His funeral was attended by friends and colleagues, and he was buried in Wittenberg. Luther's influence on Christianity and Western thought remains significant, with his writings and teachings continuing to shape Protestant beliefs and practices.

Martin Luther

Huldrych Zwingli, born on 1 January 1484 in Wildhaus, Switzerland, was a significant figure in the Reformation. He was the third child in a family of farmers, and his father held a prominent administrative position in the community. Zwingli received his early education from his uncle and later attended the University of Vienna and the University of Basel, where he earned a Master of Arts degree in 1506. He was ordained as a priest in 1506 and began his ecclesiastical career in Glarus, where he became involved in local politics and the mercenary system.In 1519, Zwingli became the people's priest at the Grossmünster in Zurich, where he began advocating for reforms in the Catholic Church. His first public controversy arose in 1522 when he challenged the practice of fasting during Lent, leading to a series of publications that criticized ecclesiastical corruption and promoted clerical marriage. Zwingli's approach to preaching, which emphasized expository sermons based on scripture, marked a departure from traditional Catholic practices. In 1525, he introduced a new communion liturgy, replacing the Mass, and faced opposition from the Anabaptists, leading to their persecution.As the Reformation spread through the Swiss Confederation, Zwingli formed alliances with other Reformed cantons, creating divisions along religious lines. In 1529, tensions escalated, but a war was narrowly avoided. Zwingli's theological ideas gained attention from other reformers, including Martin Luther, with whom he met at the Marburg Colloquy. However, they could not reconcile their differing views on the Eucharist.In 1531, Zwingli's alliance attempted a food blockade against the Catholic cantons, which led to conflict. The Catholic cantons launched a surprise attack on Zurich, resulting in Zwingli's death on the battlefield on 11 October 1531. His contributions to the Reformation are reflected in the confessions, liturgies, and church orders of the Reformed churches that followed.

Huldrych Zwingli

Menno Simons was born in 1496 in Witmarsum, Friesland, within the Holy Roman Empire. He grew up in a poor peasant family, with limited information about his early life. His father was named Simon, and he had a brother named Pieter. Friesland experienced significant turmoil during his childhood, marked by military conflicts as the region struggled against the authority of the Habsburgs. The local population faced invasions and conquests, leading to a loss of autonomy and acceptance of imperial rule under Charles V.Simons was ordained as a Roman Catholic priest around 1515 or 1516 in Utrecht and later served as a chaplain in Pingjum. By the late 1520s, he began to question the doctrine of transubstantiation, prompting him to study the Scriptures more deeply, which he had previously avoided. His dissatisfaction with the responses from prominent reformers like Martin Luther led him to adopt a more evangelical approach to preaching, focusing on Scripture alone.In 1531, Simons learned about the execution of Sicke Freerks Snijder, an Anabaptist, which sparked his interest in the concept of rebaptism. He concluded that infant baptism lacked biblical support and engaged in discussions with his pastor and other theologians. His exposure to Anabaptist practices intensified when he was transferred to Witmarsum, where he encountered their teachings directly. Although he initially viewed the more radical Münsterite Anabaptists as misguided, he was drawn to their fervor and interpretation of the Bible.In 1535, Simons' brother Pieter was killed during a violent Anabaptist uprising at the Oldeklooster monastery. This event led Simons into a spiritual crisis, prompting him to seek divine grace and forgiveness for his previous life. On 12 January 1536, he formally rejected the Catholic Church and aligned himself with the Anabaptists, likely undergoing baptism shortly thereafter. By October 1536, his association with Anabaptism was publicly known, as he faced persecution for harboring fellow Anabaptists.Simons was ordained by Obbe Philips around 1537 and became a prominent leader within the Anabaptist movement. He distanced himself from the violent tactics of the Münsterites, advocating for a peaceful and disciplined community of believers. His theology emphasized the importance of a personal commitment to Christ and the necessity of believer's baptism, contrasting sharply with the views of reformers like Luther, who supported infant baptism.Menno Simons' influence grew significantly, and by 1544, the term 'Mennonite' was used to describe his followers. He emphasized the importance of living out one's faith through acts of love and service, viewing persecution for the sake of truth as a source of joy. He rejected ascetic practices that involved social withdrawal, instead promoting a restructured relationship with society based on Christian principles.Simons passed away on 31 January 1561 in Wüstenfelde, Holstein, and was buried in his garden. He was married to Gertrude and had at least three children, with only one daughter surviving him. His writings and teachings significantly shaped the Anabaptist movement, marking a distinct period in its history.

Menno Simons

Philip Melanchthon, born Philipp Schwartzerdt on 16 February 1497 in Bretten, was a prominent German Lutheran reformer and a key figure in the Protestant Reformation. His father, Georg Schwarzerdt, served as an armorer to Philip, Count Palatine of the Rhine, and his mother was Barbara Reuter. Following the deaths of his father and grandfather in 1508, Melanchthon moved to Pforzheim to live with his maternal grandmother. He began his education at the Latin school in Pforzheim and later attended the University of Heidelberg, where he earned his B.A. in 1509 and M.A. in 1512. Influenced by his great-uncle Johann Reuchlin, he adopted the surname Melanchthon, meaning 'black earth' in Greek.In 1518, Melanchthon was appointed professor of Greek at the University of Wittenberg, where he began to study theology. He collaborated with Martin Luther on a translation of the Bible and published several works, including a book of Greek grammar and a collection of poems. His theological contributions began with the publication of Loci communes rerum theologicarum in 1521, which outlined his views on salvation and faith, emphasizing the importance of faith over good works. This work laid the foundation for Lutheran scholasticism.Melanchthon married Katharina Krapp in 1520, and they had four children. He defended Luther's ideas during the Reformation, notably in his oration Didymi Faventini versus Thomam Placentinum pro M. Luthero in 1521. He played a significant role in the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, where he presented the Augsburg Confession, a key document of the Reformation, although it was criticized for its conciliatory tone. Following the Diet, he authored the Apology of the Augsburg Confession in response to the Catholic rebuttal.Throughout the 1530s, Melanchthon engaged in theological debates, particularly regarding the Lord's Supper, and sought to mediate between differing views. He faced criticism for his evolving positions, including his acceptance of synergism, which emphasized the cooperation of human will in salvation. In the 1540s, he navigated the complexities of the Interims, negotiating concessions that led to accusations of heresy from more conservative factions within the Lutheran movement.In his later years, Melanchthon continued to address theological controversies, particularly regarding justification and the nature of the Lord's Supper. He produced the Confessio Saxonica in 1552, reiterating the Augsburg Confession's principles. His final years were marked by increasing tensions within the Lutheran community, particularly with the rise of Calvinist thought.Melanchthon died on 19 April 1560, following a severe illness. He was buried beside Luther in the Schloßkirche in Wittenberg. His legacy includes significant contributions to theology, education, and the development of Protestant thought, as well as a lasting influence on the Lutheran tradition.

Philip Melanchthon

John Calvin, born Jehan Cauvin on 10 July 1509 in Noyon, France, was a significant theologian and reformer during the Protestant Reformation. He was the second of three surviving sons of Gérard Cauvin, a prosperous cathedral notary, and Jeanne le Franc, who died during Calvin's childhood. Initially groomed for the priesthood, Calvin's education included studies in law at the University of Orléans and Bourges, where he was influenced by humanist thought. His religious conversion, which marked his break from the Roman Catholic Church, is debated among scholars, with some suggesting it occurred around 1530. By 1532, he had published his first work, a commentary on Seneca's De Clementia.Calvin's reformative journey began in earnest after he fled France due to religious persecution. In 1536, he published the first edition of his seminal work, the Institutes of the Christian Religion, in Basel. Shortly thereafter, he was invited to Geneva by William Farel to assist in the Reformation efforts there. However, resistance from the city council led to their expulsion. Calvin then moved to Strasbourg, where he served as a minister to French refugees and continued his theological writings, including a revised edition of the Institutes.In 1541, Calvin returned to Geneva, where he implemented new church governance and liturgical practices despite facing opposition. His tenure was marked by the trial and execution of Michael Servetus, a heretic who denied the Trinity, which Calvin supported. Following Servetus's death, Calvin's authority strengthened as he consolidated power within the church and city council, leading to the establishment of the Consistory, an ecclesiastical court.Calvin's influence extended beyond Geneva as he engaged in theological debates and corresponded with other reformers. He published numerous commentaries on the Bible and continued to revise the Institutes, which expanded significantly over his lifetime. His theological positions emphasized predestination and the sovereignty of God, shaping the doctrines of various Reformed churches worldwide.Calvin's final years were marked by health issues, culminating in his death on 27 May 1564. He left behind a legacy that included the establishment of a school in Geneva, which later became the University of Geneva, and a widespread influence on Protestantism, particularly through Calvinism, which spread throughout Europe and beyond.

John Calvin

Michael Servetus, also known as Miguel Servet and Michel de Villeneuve, was born on 29 September 1511 in Villanueva de Sigena, in the Kingdom of Aragon, present-day Spain. He was a polymath, skilled in various fields including theology, medicine, cartography, and the study of the Bible in its original languages. Servetus is recognized for being the first European to accurately describe pulmonary circulation, a discovery he included in his work, Christianismi Restitutio, published in 1553. His education began at the Grammar Studium in Sariñena and continued at the University of Zaragoza, where he earned his degrees in the Liberal Arts. He later studied law at the University of Toulouse.In 1530, Servetus joined the retinue of Emperor Charles V, traveling through Italy and Germany. Disillusioned by the opulence of the papacy, he began to advocate for reform. He published several theological works, including De Trinitatis Erroribus in 1531, which criticized the doctrine of the Trinity. After fleeing to France, he adopted the name Michel de Villeneuve and continued his studies, eventually becoming a physician in Vienne, where he served prominent figures such as the Archbishop Pierre Palmier.In 1553, Servetus published Christianismi Restitutio, which rejected the doctrine of predestination and included his findings on pulmonary circulation. His correspondence with John Calvin, a leading figure of the Protestant Reformation, became contentious as Servetus criticized Calvinist doctrine. Following denunciations from Calvin and others, Servetus was arrested in Vienne for heresy. Although he escaped briefly, he was recaptured in Geneva after attending a sermon by Calvin.During his trial, Servetus was charged with heresy for his anti-Trinitarian views and his rejection of infant baptism. Despite not being a citizen of Geneva, he was condemned to death. On 27 October 1553, he was executed by burning at the stake, with his own writings used as fuel for the fire. His last words reportedly called for mercy from Jesus, the Son of God.Servetus's execution sparked significant debate regarding religious tolerance and the rights of conscience. His theological ideas influenced later movements, including Unitarianism, and his medical contributions, particularly regarding blood circulation, were recognized posthumously. His legacy remains complex, intertwining themes of religious dissent and scientific inquiry.

Michael Servetus

Isaac Watts was born on 17 July 1674 in Southampton, Hampshire, England, into a family of committed religious nonconformists. His father, also named Isaac Watts, faced imprisonment for his beliefs. Watts received a classical education at King Edward VI School, where he learned Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. He showed an early talent for poetry, which led to disciplinary actions for his unconventional behavior during prayers. Due to his nonconformist status, he was unable to attend Oxford or Cambridge, which were restricted to Anglicans. Instead, he enrolled at the Dissenting Academy in Stoke Newington in 1690, where he would spend much of his life.After completing his education, Watts became the pastor of the Mark Lane Congregational Chapel in London, where he trained preachers despite his ongoing health issues. His theological views were more ecumenical than typical for a nonconformist, and he prioritized education and scholarship over sectarian preaching. Watts worked as a private tutor and lived with the Hartopp family in Stoke Newington, where he became acquainted with Sir Thomas Abney and Lady Mary Abney. He spent 36 years living in the Abney household, particularly enjoying the grounds of Abney Park, which inspired much of his writing.Following Sir Thomas Abney's death in 1722, Lady Mary Abney invited Watts to continue living with them at Abney House. Watts remained there until his death on 25 November 1748, and he was buried in Bunhill Fields. His legacy includes approximately 750 hymns, treatises, and essays, which significantly influenced nonconformist and revivalist movements in the 18th century.Watts is recognized for transforming English hymnody by introducing original hymns that reflected Christian experiences, moving away from the traditional practice of singing Psalms. His 1707 publication, 'Hymns and Spiritual Songs,' marked a pivotal moment in English worship, as he adapted Psalms to express New Testament themes. Watts' approach included integrating faith and love into the fear of God, emphasizing the merits of Christ in discussions of sin, and reinterpreting Old Testament blessings in light of the Gospel.In addition to his contributions to hymnody, Watts authored a popular textbook on logic, titled 'Logick,' first published in 1724. This work was methodically organized into four parts: perception, judgment, reasoning, and method. Watts' logic emphasized practical application, distinguishing his approach from contemporary works. His textbook became a standard reference at institutions such as Oxford, Cambridge, Harvard, and Yale, remaining influential for over a century.Watts also made early contributions to the understanding of chemical elements, distinguishing between elements and compounds. His works, including 'The Improvement of the Mind,' further explored the attainment of knowledge in various fields. Upon his death, his papers were donated to Yale University, and he was commemorated in various ways, including monuments and memorials in Southampton and London. His hymns continue to be widely used in Christian worship across denominations.

Isaac Watts

John Wesley was born on 28 June 1703 in Epworth, England, as the 15th child of Samuel and Susanna Wesley. His father was a rector and poet, and his mother was a dissenting minister's daughter. The Wesley family emphasized education, teaching their children to read and study classical languages from an early age. At age 11, Wesley attended Charterhouse School in London, where he continued his disciplined education.In June 1720, Wesley entered Christ Church, Oxford, and graduated in 1724. He was ordained a deacon in 1725 and became a fellow of Lincoln College in 1726. At Oxford, he led the 'Holy Club,' a group focused on devout Christian living. After a failed ministry in Savannah, Georgia, he returned to England and joined a Moravian society. On 24 May 1738, he experienced a significant spiritual conversion, which marked the beginning of his independent ministry.Wesley traveled extensively across Great Britain and Ireland, preaching outdoors and forming small Christian groups that emphasized personal accountability and discipleship. He appointed itinerant evangelists, both men and women, to lead these groups. Wesley's teachings, which included a focus on Arminian doctrines and the concept of Christian perfection, became foundational to the Methodist movement. He argued against Calvinism and maintained that believers could achieve a state of holiness in this life.Wesley was born into a family that valued education and religious instruction. His early life was marked by a traumatic event when a fire nearly claimed his life, which contributed to the perception of his special destiny. His education continued at Oxford, where he became a fellow and engaged in rigorous religious practices. The 'Holy Club' he led faced criticism and persecution, but it laid the groundwork for his later ministry.In 1735, Wesley and his brother Charles traveled to Georgia to serve as ministers. Their experiences with Moravian settlers during the voyage influenced Wesley's spiritual development. Although his ministry in Georgia was not successful, he published the first Anglican hymnal in America. After returning to England, Wesley had a transformative experience at a Moravian meeting in 1738, which solidified his commitment to evangelism and personal faith.Wesley began to preach outdoors, reaching people who would not enter churches. He faced opposition from clergy and was often barred from preaching in established churches. Despite this, he continued to expand the Methodist movement, establishing societies and chapels. He developed a system of lay preachers, which was crucial for the growth of Methodism, and he implemented organizational structures to manage the increasing number of societies.Wesley was a prolific writer, producing numerous publications on theology, social issues, and personal conduct. He advocated for the abolition of slavery and supported women in ministry, allowing them to preach and lead classes. His theological framework emphasized personal salvation, the witness of the Spirit, and entire sanctification, which he viewed as attainable in this life.Wesley's relationship with the Church of England evolved over time. He maintained a commitment to Anglicanism while also ordaining ministers for the growing Methodist movement, particularly in America after the American War of Independence. His theological contributions, particularly in Arminianism, shaped the beliefs of the Methodist Church and influenced various other Christian movements.Wesley traveled extensively throughout his life, preaching thousands of sermons and establishing a significant following. He died on 2 March 1791 at the age of 87, leaving behind a legacy of over 135,000 members in the Methodist movement. His writings and teachings continue to influence Christian thought and practice, particularly within Methodism and its offshoots.

John Wesley

John Henry Newman was born on 21 February 1801 in the City of London, the eldest of six children in a banking family. He attended Great Ealing School and later Trinity College, Oxford, where he became an influential figure in the Oxford Movement, advocating for a return to Catholic traditions within the Church of England. Newman was ordained as an Anglican priest in 1825 and became a prominent leader of the movement, which sought to restore Catholic beliefs and practices in Anglicanism.In 1845, after a period of theological reflection and increasing doubts about Anglicanism, Newman converted to Roman Catholicism, resigning his position at Oxford. He was ordained as a Catholic priest shortly thereafter and became a cardinal in 1879. Newman founded the Oratory of St. Philip Neri in England and played a significant role in establishing the Catholic University of Ireland in 1854, which later evolved into University College Dublin.Newman's literary contributions include the 'Tracts for the Times,' his autobiography 'Apologia Pro Vita Sua,' and the theological work 'Grammar of Assent.' He also wrote hymns, including 'Lead, Kindly Light.' His writings addressed the relationship between faith and reason, emphasizing the importance of both in understanding religious truth.Newman's influence extended beyond his lifetime, as he became a central figure in discussions about Catholic doctrine and education. He was beatified by Pope Benedict XVI in 2010 and canonized by Pope Francis in 2019. His legacy includes the establishment of Newman Societies at universities worldwide, promoting Catholic education and pastoral care.Newman died on 11 August 1890 in Birmingham, where he was buried alongside his close friend Ambrose St. John. His life and work continue to be studied and celebrated within both the Anglican and Catholic traditions.

John Henry Newman

Joseph Smith Jr. was born on December 23, 1805, in Sharon, Vermont, to Lucy Mack Smith and Joseph Smith Sr. He was the sixth of eleven children. After a series of crop failures, the Smith family moved to Western New York in 1816. This region was marked by intense religious revivalism during the Second Great Awakening. By the age of 12, Smith developed an interest in religion, and he briefly joined the Methodists. He also engaged in folk magic, a common practice of the time. In 1820, Smith reported a vision in which he saw two personages, whom he later identified as God the Father and Jesus Christ. In 1823, he claimed to have been visited by an angel who directed him to a buried book of golden plates, which he said contained a history of an ancient American civilization.In 1830, at the age of 24, Smith published the Book of Mormon, which he described as a translation of the golden plates. That same year, he organized the Church of Christ, which later became known as the Latter Day Saint movement. Smith and his followers initially gathered in Kirtland, Ohio, and later sought to establish a communal Zion in Independence, Missouri. During the 1830s, Smith sent out missionaries, published revelations, and oversaw the construction of the Kirtland Temple. However, conflicts with non-Mormon residents in Missouri led to violence and the eventual expulsion of Mormons from the area.After leaving Missouri, Smith and his followers settled in Nauvoo, Illinois, where he served as mayor and continued to grow the church. In 1844, he launched a presidential campaign. During this time, tensions escalated when Smith ordered the destruction of the Nauvoo Expositor, a newspaper that criticized him and his practices, including polygamy. This action intensified opposition against him. Smith surrendered to authorities but was killed by a mob while in jail on June 27, 1844.Throughout his ministry, Smith produced numerous texts and revelations, many of which were accepted by his followers as scripture. His teachings encompassed various topics, including the nature of God, family structures, and religious authority. Smith is regarded by his followers as a prophet, comparable to biblical figures such as Moses and Elijah. After his death, the Latter Day Saint movement experienced a succession crisis, leading to the formation of various denominations, including the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the Community of Christ.Smith's early life was marked by hardship, including a leg infection that required surgery and a series of financial failures. He engaged in treasure-seeking ventures, which led to legal troubles in 1826. In 1827, he married Emma Hale, and they began their life together in Harmony, Pennsylvania. Smith claimed to have retrieved the golden plates in September 1827, and he began translating them shortly thereafter. His work on the Book of Mormon was completed by July 1829, and the book was published in March 1830.In Ohio, Smith faced increasing opposition, particularly after the failure of the Kirtland Safety Society, a church-sponsored bank. He was charged with various crimes, including treason, and fled to Missouri. In Far West, Missouri, he declared the town as the new Zion and continued to attract followers. However, tensions with local residents escalated into violence, culminating in the Mormon War. Smith was arrested and imprisoned but escaped in April 1839.In Nauvoo, Smith introduced new doctrines, including baptism for the dead and plural marriage. He faced increasing scrutiny and opposition, particularly after the publication of the Nauvoo Expositor. Following his arrest in June 1844, Smith was killed by a mob while in custody. His death marked a significant turning point for the Latter Day Saint movement, leading to the establishment of various factions and the continuation of his teachings by his followers.