Geopolitics of Canada

Canada's Geographic Challenge

La storia del Canada copre il periodo dall'arrivo dei paleo-indiani al Nord America migliaia di anni fa fino ai giorni nostri. Prima della colonizzazione europea, le terre che comprendevano l'attuale Canada erano abitate per millenni dai popoli indigeni, con distinte reti commerciali, credenze spirituali e stili dell'organizzazione sociale. Alcune di queste civiltà più vecchie erano a lungo svanite al momento dei primi arrivi europei e sono state scoperte attraverso indagini archeologiche. Dalla fine del XV secolo, le spedizioni <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-France" target="_blank">francesi</a> e <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-England" target="_blank">britanniche</a> hanno esplorato, colonizzato e combattuto in vari luoghi del Nord America in ciò che costituisce l'attuale Canada. La colonia della Nuova Francia fu rivendicata nel 1534 con insediamenti permanenti a partire dal 1608. La Francia cedette quasi tutti i suoi possedimenti nordamericani nel Regno Unito nel 1763 nel trattato di Parigi dopo la <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/Seven-Years-War" target="_blank">guerra dei sette anni</a> . L'ormai britannica provincia del Quebec fu divisa in Canada superiore e inferiore nel 1791. Le due province furono unite come la provincia del Canada dall'atto dell'Unione 1840, che entrò in vigore nel 1841. Nel 1867, la provincia del Canada si unì a altre due colonie britanniche di New Brunswick e Nova Scozia attraverso la Confederazione, formando un entità autogovernale. "Canada" è stato adottato come nome legale del nuovo paese e la parola "Dominion" è stata conferita come titolo del paese. Nel corso dei successivi ottantadue anni, il Canada si espanse incorporando altre parti del Nord America britannico, finendo con Terranova e Labrador nel 1949. Sebbene il governo responsabile esistesse nel Nord America britannico dal 1848, la Gran Bretagna continuò a stabilire le sue politiche straniere e di difesa fino alla fine della <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/World-War-I" target="_blank">prima guerra mondiale</a> . La Dichiarazione di Balfour del 1926, la Conferenza imperiale del 1930 e la scomparsa dello statuto di Westminster nel 1931 riconobbe che il Canada era diventato co-uguale con il Regno Unito. La patterrazione della Costituzione nel 1982, ha segnato la rimozione della dipendenza legale dal parlamento britannico. Il Canada è attualmente composto da dieci province e tre territori ed è una democrazia parlamentare e una monarchia costituzionale. Nel corso dei secoli, elementi di costumi immigrati indigeni, francesi, britannici e più recenti si sono uniti per formare una cultura canadese che è stata fortemente influenzata dalla sua vicina linguistica, geografica ed economica, gli <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-the-United-States" target="_blank">Stati Uniti</a> . Dalla conclusione della <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/World-War-II" target="_blank">seconda guerra mondiale</a> , i canadesi hanno sostenuto il multilateralismo all'estero e lo sviluppo socioeconomico.

Originariamente una gente, o una raccolta di band strettamente correlate, le identità etniche di Ojibwe, Odawa e Potawatomi si sono sviluppate dopo che Anishinaabe raggiunse Michilimackinac nel loro viaggio verso ovest dalla costa atlantica. Usando le pergamene di Midewiwin, Potawatomi Elder Shup-Shewana ha frequentato la formazione del Consiglio di tre incendi al 796 d.C. a Michilimackinac. In questo consiglio, gli Ojibwe furono indirizzati come il "fratello maggiore", l'Odawa come il "fratello di mezzo" e il Potawatomi come il "fratello minore". Di conseguenza, ogni volta che le tre nazioni di Anishinaabe sono menzionate in questo ordine specifico e consecutivo di Ojibwe, Odawa e Potawatomi, è anche un indicatore che implica il consiglio di tre incendi. Inoltre, gli Ojibwe sono i "custodi della fede", gli Odawa sono i "custodi del commercio" e i potawatomi sono i "manutentori/manutentori di/per il fuoco" (Boodawaadam) designati (Boodawaadam), che divenne la base per il loro nome Boodewaadamii (Ojibwe Spelling) o Bodéwadmi (Potawatomi Telling). Sebbene i tre incendi avessero diversi luoghi di incontro, Michilimackinac è ​​diventato il luogo di incontro preferito a causa della sua posizione centrale. Da questo luogo, il consiglio si è incontrato per scopi militari e politici. Da questo sito, il Consiglio ha mantenuto le relazioni con il compagno Anishinaabeg, The Ozaagii (SAC), Odagaamii (Meskwaki), Omanoominii (Menominee), Wiinibiigoo (Ho-Chunk), Naadawe (Iroquois Confederacy), Nii'inaawiadawe (Wyandot) (Sioux). Qui, hanno anche mantenuto le relazioni con Wemitigoozhi (francesi), Zhaaganaashi (inglese) e Gichi-Mookomaanag (gli americani). Attraverso il sistema totem e la promozione del commercio, il consiglio aveva generalmente un'esistenza pacifica con i suoi vicini. Tuttavia, le controversie occasionali irrisolte scoppiarono in guerre. In queste condizioni, il Consiglio ha combattuto in particolare contro la Confederazione irochese e il Sioux. Durante la guerra francese e indiana e la guerra di Pontiac, il consiglio combatté contro la Gran Bretagna; e durante la guerra indiana nord -occidentale e la guerra del 1812, combatterono contro gli Stati Uniti. Dopo la formazione degli Stati Uniti d'America nel 1776, il Consiglio divenne il membro principale della Confederazione dei Laghi occidentali (noto anche come "Confederazione dei Grandi Laghi"), unita a Wyandots, Algonquins, Nipissing, SACS, Meskwaki e altri.

Consiglio di tre incendi

L'esplorazione norrena del Nord America iniziò alla fine del X secolo, quando Norsemen esplorava le aree del Nord Atlantico colonizzante la Groenlandia e creando un insediamento a breve termine vicino alla punta settentrionale di Terranova. Questo è noto ora come INSE Aux Meadows in cui i resti di edifici furono trovati nel 1960 risalenti a circa 1.000 anni fa. Questa scoperta ha aiutato a riaccendere l'esplorazione archeologica per il norreno nel Nord Atlantico. Questo singolo insediamento, situato sull'isola di Terranova e non sulla terraferma nordamericana, fu bruscamente abbandonato. Gli insediamenti norreni in Groenlandia sono durati per quasi 500 anni. L'Anse Aux Meadows, l'unico sito norreno confermato nell'attuale Canada, era piccolo e non è durato a lungo. È probabile che altri viaggi norreni si siano verificati per un po 'di tempo, ma non vi sono prove di alcun insediamento norreno sul Nord America del Nord che dura oltre l'XI secolo.

Colonizzazione norrena del Nord America

Gli irochesi sono una confederazione di lingua irochena delle popolazioni delle Prime Nazioni nel nord-est del Nord America/Turtle Island. Gli <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-England" target="_blank">inglesi</a> li chiamavano le cinque nazioni, che comprendono Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga e Seneca. Dopo il 1722, il popolo di Tuscarora di lingua irocheo del sud-est fu accettato nella Confederazione, che divenne nota come le sei nazioni. La Confederazione è nata a seguito della Grande Legge della Pace, che si dice sia stata composta da Deganawidah, il grande pacificatore, Hiawatha e Jigonsaseh la madre delle nazioni. Per quasi 200 anni, le sei nazioni/la confederazione di Haudenosaunee sono state un forte fattore nella politica coloniale nordamericana, con alcuni studiosi che discutevano del concetto di medio via, in quanto le potenze europee erano usate dagli irochesi tanto quanto gli europei li usavano. Al suo apice intorno al 1700, l'Iroquois Power si estendeva da quello che oggi è lo Stato di New York, a nord nell'Ontario e nel Quebec di oggi lungo il Lower Great Lakes-Upper St. Lawrence, e a sud su entrambi i lati delle montagne di Allegheny nella Virginia oggi e nel Kentucky e nell'Ohio Valley. <img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Early_Localization_Native_Americans_NY.svg/1248px-Early_Localization_Native_Americans_NY.svg.png" /> Primi tribù indiane dello stato americano di New York. Purple = Tribù irochene. Beige = tribù algonquian. © Zoofari Gli irochesi hanno successivamente creato una società altamente egualitaria. Un amministratore coloniale britannico dichiarò nel 1749 che gli irochesi avevano "così assolute nozioni di libertà da non consentire alcun tipo di superiorità l'uno all'altro e bandire tutta la servitù dai loro territori". Mentre le incursioni tra le tribù membri si sono concluse e hanno diretto la guerra contro i concorrenti, gli irochesi aumentarono di numero mentre i loro rivali diminuivano. La coesione politica degli irochesi divenne rapidamente una delle forze più forti nel nord-est del Nord America del XVII e del 18 ° secolo. Il Consiglio della Lega di cinquant'anni ha pronunciato le controversie e ha cercato il consenso. Tuttavia, la Confederazione non ha parlato per tutte e cinque le tribù, che hanno continuato ad agire in modo indipendente e formare le loro bande di guerra. Intorno al 1678, il Consiglio iniziò a esercitare più potere nei negoziati con i governi coloniali della Pennsylvania e di New York, e gli irochesi divennero molto aderenti alla diplomazia, giocando fuori dai <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-France" target="_blank">francesi</a> contro gli inglesi mentre le singole tribù avevano precedentemente giocato a svedesi, <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-the-Netherlands" target="_blank">olandesi</a> e inglesi.

Confederazione irochese

Sotto le lettere di brevetto del re Enrico VII d'Inghilterra, il navigatore genovese John Cabot divenne il primo europeo noto ad essere atterrato in Canada dopo l'età vichinga rivendicando la terra per l'Inghilterra dalla dottrina della scoperta. I registri indicano che il 24 giugno 1497 avvistava la terra in una posizione settentrionale che si ritiene fosse da qualche parte nelle province atlantiche. La tradizione ufficiale ha ritenuto che il primo sito di atterraggio si trovasse a Cape Bonavista, in Terranova, sebbene siano possibili altre località. Dopo il 1497 Cabot e suo figlio Sebastian Cabot continuarono a fare altri viaggi per trovare il passaggio del nord -ovest, e altri esploratori continuarono a navigare fuori dall'Inghilterra nel nuovo mondo, sebbene i dettagli di questi viaggi non siano ben registrati. Si dice che Cabot sia atterrato solo una volta durante la spedizione e non è avanzato "oltre la distanza di scatto di una balestra". Pasqualigo e Day affermano entrambi che la spedizione non ha fatto alcun contatto con nessun nativo; L'equipaggio ha trovato i resti di un fuoco, un sentiero umano, reti e uno strumento di legno. Sembrava che l'equipaggio fosse rimasto a terra abbastanza a lungo da assumere acqua dolce; Hanno anche sollevato gli stendardi veneziani e papali, rivendicando la terra per il re d'Inghilterra e riconoscendo l'autorità religiosa della Chiesa cattolica romana. Dopo questo atterraggio, Cabot ha trascorso alcune settimane a "scoprire la costa", con la maggior parte "scoperta dopo essere tornata indietro". <img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/1497_voyage.png/1280px-1497_voyage.png" /> Percorso del viaggio del 1497 di John Cabot sul Matthew di Bristol posato da Jones e Condon. © Evan T Jones

Cabot scopre Terranova

Sulla base del trattato di Tordesillas, la corona<a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-Spain" target="_blank">spagnola</a> ha affermato di avere diritti territoriali nell'area visitato da John Cabot nel 1497 e nel 1498 d.C. Tuttavia, esploratori portoghesi come João Fernandes Lavrador avrebbero continuato a visitare la costa del Nord Atlantico, che rappresenta la comparsa di "Labrador" sulle mappe del periodo. Nel 1501 e nel 1502 i fratelli Corte-Real esplorarono Terranova (Terra Nova) e Labrador rivendicando queste terre come parte dell'Impero <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-Portugal" target="_blank">portoghese</a> . Nel 1506, King Manuel I del Portogallo creò tasse per la pesca del merluzzo nelle acque di Terranova. João Álvares Fagundes e Pêro de Barcelos hanno istituito avamposti di pesca a Terranova e Nuova Scozia intorno al 1521 d.C.; Tuttavia, questi furono successivamente abbandonati, con i colonizzatori portoghesi che focalivano i loro sforzi sul Sud America. L'entità e la natura dell'attività portoghese sulla terraferma canadese durante il XVI secolo rimane poco chiara e controversa.

Spedizioni portoghesi

Regola francese

L'interesse <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-France" target="_blank">francese</a> per il nuovo mondo iniziò con Francis I di Francia, che nel 1524 sponsorizzò la navigazione di Giovanni da Verrazzano nella regione tra Florida e Terranova nella speranza di trovare un percorso verso l'Oceano Pacifico. Sebbene gli <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-England" target="_blank">inglesi</a> avessero presentato reclami nel 1497 quando John Cabot fece sbarcare da qualche parte sulla costa nordamericana (probabilmente odierna di Terranova o Nuova Scozia) e aveva rivendicato la terra per l'Inghilterra per conto di Enrico VII, queste affermazioni non furono esercitate e l'Inghilterra non tentava di creare una colonia permanente. Per quanto riguarda i francesi, tuttavia, Jacques Cartier piantò una croce nella penisola di Gaspé nel 1534 e rivendicò la terra in nome di Francis I, creando una regione chiamata "Canada" l'estate successiva. Cartier aveva navigato lungo il fiume St. Lawrence fino alle Rapids Lachine, verso il punto in cui ora si trova Montreal. Tentativi di insediamento permanente da parte di Cartier a Charlesbourg-Royal nel 1541, a Sable Island nel 1598 dal Marquis de La Roche-Mesgouez, e a Tadoussac, nel Quebec nel 1600 da François Gravé du Pont alla fine fallì. Nonostante questi fallimenti iniziali, le flotte di pesca francese hanno visitato le comunità della costa atlantica e hanno navigato nel fiume St. Lawrence, scambiando e facendo alleanze con le prime nazioni, oltre a stabilire insediamenti di pesca come a Percé (1603). Mentre una varietà di teorie è stata postulata per le origini etimologiche del Canada, il nome è ora accettato come proveniente dalla parola irochena di San Lawrence Kanata, che significa "villaggio" o "insediamento". Nel 1535, gli abitanti indigeni dell'attuale regione del Quebec City usarono la parola per dirigere l'esploratore francese Jacques Cartier nel villaggio di Stadacona. Cartier in seguito usò la parola Canada per riferirsi non solo a quel particolare villaggio, ma all'intera area soggetta a Donnacona (il capo di Stadacona); Nel 1545, i libri e le mappe europei avevano iniziato a riferirsi a questa piccola regione lungo il fiume Saint Lawrence come il Canada.

Chiamiamolo "Canada"

Nel 1604 fu concesso un monopolio del commercio di pellicce nordamericano a Pierre du Gua, Sieur de Mons. Il commercio di pellicce divenne una delle principali iniziative economiche del Nord America. Du Gua ha guidato la sua prima spedizione di colonizzazione in un'isola situata vicino alla foce del fiume St. Croix. Tra i suoi luogotenenti c'era un geografo di nome Samuel de Champlain, che ha prontamente effettuato un'importante esplorazione della costa nord -orientale di quella che oggi è gli Stati Uniti. Nella primavera del 1605, sotto Samuel de Champlain, il nuovo insediamento di St. Croix fu spostato a Port Royal (oggi Annapolis Royal, Nuova Scozia). Samuel de Champlain sbarcò anche a Saint John Harbor il 24 giugno 1604 (la festa di San Giovanni Battista) ed è il luogo in cui la città di San Giovanni, New Brunswick e Saint John River prende il loro nome.

Commercio di pellicce

Nel 1608 Champlain fondò quello che ora è Quebec City, uno dei primi insediamenti permanenti, che sarebbe diventato la capitale della Nuova Francia. Prese l'amministrazione personale sulla città e sui suoi affari e mandò spedizioni per esplorare gli interni. Champlain divenne il primo europeo noto a incontrare il lago Champlain nel 1609. Nel 1615, aveva viaggiato in canoa lungo il fiume Ottawa attraverso il lago Nipissing e la baia georgiana fino al centro del paese di Huron vicino al lago Simcoe. Durante questi viaggi, Champlain aiutò il Wendat (aka "Hurons") nelle loro battaglie contro la Confederazione irochese. Di conseguenza, gli irochesi sarebbero diventati nemici dei francesi e sarebbero coinvolti in più conflitti (noti come guerre francesi e irochesi) fino alla firma della grande pace di Montreal nel 1701.

Quebec fondata

Le guerre di Beaver furono una serie di conflitti combattuti a intermittenza durante il 17 ° secolo in Nord America in tutta la valle del fiume Saint Lawrence in Canada e nella regione dei Grandi Laghi che contrapponsero gli irochesi contro gli Huron, gli Algonchi settentrionali e i loro alleati francesi. Gli irochesi cercarono di espandere il loro territorio e di monopolizzare il commercio di pellicce con i mercati europei. La Confederazione irochese guidata dai Mohawks mobilitò contro le tribù di lingua in gran parte algonquiane e Huron di lingua irochese e le tribù correlate della regione dei Grandi Laghi. Gli irochesi furono forniti armi dai loro partner commerciali <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-the-Netherlands" target="_blank">olandesi</a> e <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-England" target="_blank">inglesi</a> ; Gli Algonquiani e gli Huron furono sostenuti dai <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-France" target="_blank">francesi</a> , dal loro principale partner commerciale. The Iroquois effectively destroyed several large tribal confederacies, including the Mohicans, Huron (Wyandot), Neutral, Erie, Susquehannock (Conestoga), and northern Algonquins, with the extreme brutality and exterminatory nature of the mode of warfare practised by the Iroquois causing some historians to label these wars as acts of genocide committed by the Iroquois Confederazione. Sono diventati dominanti nella regione e ampliarono il loro territorio, riallineando la geografia tribale americana. Gli irochesi ottennero il controllo della frontiera del New England e la valle del fiume Ohio rimase come terreno di caccia dal 1670 circa. Le guerre e il successivo intrappolamento commerciale di Beavers erano devastanti per la popolazione locale di Beaver. Trapping ha continuato a diffondersi in tutto il Nord America, estirpando o riducendo gravemente le popolazioni in tutto il continente. Anche gli ecosistemi naturali che si affidano ai castori per dighe, acqua e altri bisogni vitali sono stati devastati portando alla distruzione ecologica, al cambiamento ambientale e alla siccità in alcune aree. Le popolazioni di castori in Nord America impiegherebbero secoli per riprendersi in alcune aree, mentre altre non si sarebbero mai riprese.

Wars di Beaver

Dopo la morte di Champlain nel 1635, la <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-Christianity" target="_blank">Chiesa cattolica romana</a> e l'establishment gesuita divennero la forza più dominante in Nuova Francia e speravano di stabilire una comunità cristiana europea e aborigena utopica. Nel 1642, i Sulpicians sponsorirono un gruppo di coloni guidati da Paul Chomedey de Maisonneuve, che fondò Ville-Marie, il precursore dell'attuale Montreal. Nel 1663 la corona francese prese il controllo diretto delle colonie dalla compagnia della Nuova Francia. Sebbene i tassi di immigrazione in Nuova Francia siano rimasti molto bassi sotto il controllo francese diretto, la maggior parte dei nuovi arrivi erano agricoltori e il tasso di crescita della popolazione tra i coloni stessi era stato molto elevato. Le donne avevano circa il 30 % in più di bambini rispetto alle donne comparabili che erano rimaste in Francia. Yves Landry dice: "I canadesi hanno avuto una dieta eccezionale per il loro tempo". Ciò era dovuto alla naturale abbondanza di carne, pesce e acqua pura; le buone condizioni di conservazione del cibo durante l'inverno; e una fornitura di grano adeguata nella maggior parte degli anni.

Fondazione di Montreal

All'inizio del 1700 i nuovi coloni francesi furono ben stabiliti lungo le rive del fiume Saint Lawrence e parti della Nuova Scozia, con una popolazione di circa 16.000. Tuttavia, i nuovi arrivi hanno smesso di venire dalla Francia nei decenni procedimenti, il che significa che i coloni inglesi e scozzesi a Terranova, in Nuova Scozia, e le tredici colonie meridionali hanno superato la popolazione francese circa dieci a uno nel 1750. <img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Ruperts_land.svg/1057px-Ruperts_land.svg.png" /> La mappa di terra di Rupert. © Decumanus Dal 1670, attraverso la Hudson's Bay Company, gli inglesi rivendicarono anche Hudson Bay e il suo bacino di drenaggio, noto come Rupert's Land, stabilendo nuovi posti commerciali e forti, continuando a gestire insediamenti di pesca a Terranova. L'espansione francese lungo le rotte canadesi in canoa sfidò le affermazioni della Hudson's Bay Company e, nel 1686, Pierre Troyes condusse una spedizione terrestre da Montreal alla riva della baia, dove riuscirono a catturare una manciata di avamposti. Le esplorazioni di La Salle hanno dato alla Francia una pretesa alla valle del fiume Mississippi, dove i trapper di pelliccia e alcuni coloni hanno creato forti e insediamenti sparsi.

Hudson's Bay Company

C'erano quattro guerre francesi e indiane e due guerre aggiuntive in Acadia e Nuova Scozia tra le tredici colonie americane e la Nuova Francia dal 1688 al 1763. Durante la guerra di King William (dal 1688 al 1697), i conflitti militari in Acadia includevano la battaglia di Port Royal (1690); una battaglia navale nel Golfo di Fundy (azione del 14 luglio 1696); e il raid su Chignecto (1696). Il trattato di Ryswick nel 1697 pose fine alla guerra tra le due potenze coloniali dell'Inghilterra e della Francia per un breve periodo. Durante la guerra della regina Anne (1702-1713), la conquista britannica di Acadia avvenne nel 1710, provocando la Nuova Scozia (diversa da Cape Breton) essendo ufficialmente ceduto agli inglesi dal trattato di Utrecht, compresa la terra di Rupert, che la Francia aveva conquistato alla fine del 17 ° secolo (battaglia della baia di Hudson). Come risultato immediato di questa battuta d'arresto, la Francia ha fondato la potente fortezza di Louisbourg sull'isola di Cape Breton. Louisbourg doveva fungere da base militare e navale per tutto l'anno per il rimanente impero nordamericano della Francia e per proteggere l'ingresso al fiume St. Lawrence. La guerra di padre Rale ha portato sia alla caduta dell'influenza della Nuova Francia nell'attuale Maine sia al riconoscimento britannico che avrebbe dovuto negoziare con il Mi'kmaq in Nuova Scozia. Durante la guerra di King George (dal 1744 al 1748), un esercito di New England guidata da William Pepperrell prese una spedizione di 90 navi e 4.000 uomini contro Louisbourg nel 1745. Nel giro di tre mesi la fortezza si arrese. Il ritorno di Louisbourg al controllo francese da parte del trattato di pace spinse gli inglesi a trovare Halifax nel 1749 sotto Edward Cornwallis. Nonostante la cessazione ufficiale della guerra tra gli imperi britannici e francesi con il trattato di Aix-La-Chapelle, il conflitto in Acadia e Nuova Scozia continuò mentre la guerra di padre Le Loutre. Gli inglesi ordinarono agli Acadiani espulsi dalle loro terre nel 1755 durante la <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/French-and-Indian-War" target="_blank">guerra francese e indiana</a> , un evento chiamato espulsione degli Acadiani o Le Grand Dérangement. L '"espulsione" ha comportato la spedizione di circa 12.000 accadesi in destinazioni in tutto il Nord America britannico e in Francia, Quebec e la colonia francese dei Caraibi di Saint-Domingue. La prima ondata dell'espulsione degli Acadiani iniziò con la campagna di Gabe of Fundy (1755) e la seconda ondata iniziò dopo l'assedio finale di Louisbourg (1758). Molti degli Acadiani si stabilirono nel sud della Louisiana, creando lì la cultura Cajun. Alcuni Acadiani sono riusciti a nascondersi e altri alla fine sono tornati in Nuova Scozia, ma sono stati molto più numerosi da una nuova migrazione delle piantatrici del New England che si sono stabiliti sulle ex terre degli Acadiani e hanno trasformato la Nuova Scozia da una colonia di occupazione per gli inglesi a una colonia stabilita con legami più forti con la New England. La Gran Bretagna alla fine ottenne il controllo di Quebec City dopo la battaglia delle pianure di Abramo e la battaglia di Fort Niagara nel 1759, e alla fine catturò Montreal nel 1760.

Guerre francesi e indiane

Il trattato di Parigi fu firmato il 10 febbraio 1763 dai regni di Gran Bretagna, Francia e Spagna, con il Portogallo d'accordo, dopo la Gran Bretagna e la vittoria della Prussia sulla Francia e in Spagna durante la <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/Seven-Years-War" target="_blank">guerra dei sette anni</a> . La firma del trattato ha formalmente concluso il conflitto tra Francia e Gran Bretagna per il controllo del Nord America (la guerra dei sette anni, nota come <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/French-and-Indian-War" target="_blank">guerra francese e indiana</a> negli <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-the-United-States" target="_blank">Stati Uniti</a> ) e ha segnato l'inizio di un'era del dominio britannico al di fuori dell'Europa. La Gran Bretagna e la Francia hanno restituito gran parte del territorio che avevano catturato durante la guerra, ma la Gran Bretagna ha guadagnato gran parte dei beni francesi in Nord America. Inoltre, la Gran Bretagna ha accettato di proteggere il cattolicesimo romano nel nuovo mondo. <img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/NorthAmerica1762-83.png" /> Mappa che mostra guadagni territoriali della Gran Bretagna e della Spagna dopo la guerra francese e indiana. © Jon Platek

Dominanza britannica in Nord America

Regola britannica

L'invasione del Quebec fu la prima grande iniziativa militare dell'esercito <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/article/The-Continental-Army-during-the-American-Revolution" target="_blank">continentale</a> di recente formazione durante la <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/American-Revolutionary-War" target="_blank">guerra rivoluzionaria americana</a> . L'obiettivo della campagna era quello di impadronirsi della provincia del Quebec dalla Gran Bretagna e persuadere i canadesi di lingua francese a unirsi alla rivoluzione dalla parte delle tredici colonie. Una spedizione lasciò Fort Ticonderoga sotto Richard Montgomery, assediata e catturata Fort St. Johns e quasi catturata il generale britannico Guy Carleton quando prendeva Montreal. L'altra spedizione, sotto Benedict Arnold, ha lasciato Cambridge, nel Massachusetts e ha viaggiato con grande difficoltà attraverso la natura selvaggia del Maine a Quebec City. Le due forze si unirono lì, ma furono sconfitte nella battaglia del Quebec nel dicembre 1775. <img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/American_attack_on_Quebec.svg/1679px-American_attack_on_Quebec.svg.png" /> Mappa che mostra i percorsi presi dalle spedizioni di Benedict Arnold e Richard Montgomery in Quebec come parte dell'invasione americana del Canada (1775). © Centro dell'esercito degli Stati Uniti della storia militare La spedizione di Montgomery partì da Fort Ticonderoga a fine agosto e a metà settembre iniziò ad assegnare Fort St. Johns, il principale punto difensivo a sud di Montreal. Dopo che il forte fu catturato a novembre, Carleton abbandonò Montreal, in fuga a Quebec City, e Montgomery prese il controllo di Montreal prima di dirigersi verso il Quebec con un esercito di dimensioni molto ridotte mediante arruolamenti scaduti. Lì si unì a Arnold, che aveva lasciato Cambridge all'inizio di settembre per un arduo trekking attraverso il deserto che lasciò le sue truppe sopravvissute a fame e carenti in molte forniture e attrezzature. Queste forze si sono unite davanti al Quebec City a dicembre e hanno aggredito la città in una tempesta di neve l'ultimo giorno dell'anno. La battaglia fu una disastrosa sconfitta per l'esercito continentale; Montgomery è stato ucciso e Arnold ha ferito, mentre i difensori della città hanno subito poche vittime. Arnold ha quindi condotto un assedio inefficace sulla città, durante il quale le campagne di propaganda di successo hanno aumentato i sentimenti lealisti e l'amministrazione smussata del generale David Wooster di Montreal ha servito a infastidire sia i sostenitori che i fiocchi di detrattori. Gli inglesi mandarono diverse migliaia di truppe sotto il generale John Burgoyne, compresi i mercenari dell'Assia, per rafforzare la provincia nel maggio 1776. Il generale Carleton ha quindi lanciato un controffensivo, alla fine guidando le forze continentali debolite e disorganizzate per il vaiolo a Fort Ticonderoga. L'esercito continentale, sotto il comando di Arnold, ostacolava sufficientemente l'avanzata britannica che un attacco non poteva essere montato su Fort Ticonderoga nel 1776. La fine della campagna preparava le basi per la campagna del 1777 di Burgoyne nella valle del fiume Hudson.

Invasione del Quebec (1775)

Il trattato di Parigi, firmato a Parigi dai rappresentanti del re Giorgio III della <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-England" target="_blank">Gran Bretagna</a> e dai rappresentanti degli Stati Uniti d'America il 3 settembre 1783, terminò ufficialmente la <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/American-Revolutionary-War" target="_blank">guerra rivoluzionaria americana</a> e lo stato generale di conflitto tra i due paesi. Il trattato ha posto i confini tra il Canada (impero britannico in Nord America) e gli <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-the-United-States" target="_blank">Stati Uniti d'America</a> , sulle linee "estremamente generose" a quest'ultimo. I dettagli includevano i diritti di pesca e il ripristino della proprietà e i prigionieri di guerra.

Set di confini

Quando gli inglesi evacuarono New York City nel 1783, portarono molti rifugiati lealisti in Nuova Scozia, mentre altri lealisti andarono nel sud -ovest del Quebec. Così tanti lealisti arrivarono sulle rive del fiume St. John che una colonia separata - New Brunswick - fu creata nel 1784; Seguito nel 1791 dalla divisione del Quebec nel Lower Canada di lingua francese in gran parte francese (Canada francese) lungo il fiume St. Lawrence e la penisola di Gaspé e un lealista anglofono Upper Canada, con la sua capitale stabilita nel 1796 a York (attuale Toronto). Dopo il 1790 la maggior parte dei nuovi coloni erano agricoltori americani alla ricerca di nuove terre; Sebbene generalmente favorevoli al repubblicanesimo, erano relativamente non politici e rimasero neutrali nella <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/War-of-1812" target="_blank">guerra del 1812</a> . Nel 1785, Saint John, New Brunswick divenne la prima città incorporata in quella che sarebbe in seguito diventata il Canada.

New Brunswick

La guerra del 1812 fu combattuta tra gli <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-the-United-States" target="_blank">Stati Uniti</a> e gli inglesi, con le colonie britanniche nordamericane fortemente coinvolte. Molto superato dalla Royal Navy britannica, i piani di guerra americani si sono concentrati su un'invasione del Canada (in particolare quello che è oggi Ontario orientale e occidentale). Gli Stati di frontiera americani hanno votato per la guerra per sopprimere i raid delle prime nazioni che hanno frustrato l'insediamento della frontiera. La guerra al confine con gli Stati Uniti è stata caratterizzata da una serie di molteplici invasioni e fiascos su entrambi i lati. Le forze americane prese il controllo del lago Erie nel 1813, spingendo gli inglesi dall'Ontario occidentale, uccidendo il leader di Shawnee Tecumseh e rompendo il potere militare della sua confederazione. La guerra è stata supervisionata da ufficiali dell'esercito britannico come Isaac Brock e Charles de Salaberry con l'assistenza di prime nazioni e informatori lealisti, in particolare Laura Secord. <img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Anglo_American_War_1812_Locations_map-en.svg/1280px-Anglo_American_War_1812_Locations_map-en.svg.png" /> Guerra del 1812 Mappa. © Sémhur La guerra si concluse senza cambiamenti di confine grazie al trattato di Gand del 1814 e al trattato di corsa -rush -bar del 1817. Un risultato demografico fu lo spostamento della destinazione della migrazione americana dall'Alto Canada all'Ohio, nell'Indiana e nel Michigan, senza timore di attacchi indigeni. Dopo la guerra, i sostenitori della Gran Bretagna hanno cercato di reprimere il repubblicanesimo che era comune tra gli immigrati americani in Canada. Il ricordo preoccupante della guerra e delle invasioni americane si inciso nella coscienza dei canadesi come sfiducia nelle intenzioni degli Stati Uniti nei confronti della presenza britannica in Nord America.

Guerra del 1812

Tra il 1815 e il 1850, circa 800.000 immigrati arrivarono nelle colonie del Nord America britannico, principalmente dalle Isole britanniche, come parte della Grande Migrazione del Canada. Questi includevano gli Highland Scots di lingua gaelica sfollati dalle autorizzazioni delle Highland in Nuova Scozia e coloni scozzesi e inglesi alle Canadas, in particolare Upper Canada. La carestia irlandese del 1840 aumentò significativamente il ritmo dell'immigrazione cattolica irlandese nel Nord America britannica, con oltre 35.000 sbarchi irlandesi in difficoltà a Toronto da solo nel 1847 e nel 1848.

Grande migrazione del Canada

Le ribellioni del 1837 contro il governo coloniale britannico ebbe luogo sia nel Canada superiore che inferiore. Nell'Alto Canada, una banda di riformatori sotto la guida di William Lyon Mackenzie ha preso le armi in una serie disorganizzata e alla fine senza successo di scaramucce su piccola scala intorno a Toronto, Londra e Hamilton. Nel Lower Canada, una ribellione più sostanziale si è verificata contro il dominio britannico. Sia i ribelli inglesi che francesi-canadesi, a volte usando basi negli Stati Uniti neutrali, hanno combattuto diverse scaramucce contro le autorità. Le città di Chambly e Sorel furono prese dai ribelli e il Quebec City fu isolato dal resto della colonia. Il leader ribelle di Montreal Robert Nelson ha letto la "Dichiarazione di Indipendenza del Lower Canada" a una folla riunita nella città di Napierville nel 1838. La ribellione del movimento di Patriote fu sconfitta dopo battaglie attraverso il Quebec. Centinaia di persone furono arrestate e diversi villaggi furono bruciati in rappresaglia. Il governo britannico ha quindi inviato Lord Durham per esaminare la situazione; Rimase in Canada per cinque mesi prima di tornare in Gran Bretagna, portando con sé il suo rapporto Durham, che raccomandò fortemente il governo responsabile. Una raccomandazione meno accolta è stata la fusione del Canada superiore e inferiore per l'assimilazione deliberata della popolazione di lingua francese. Le Canadas furono unite in una singola colonia, la provincia unita del Canada, dalla legge dell'Unione del 1840, e il governo responsabile fu raggiunto nel 1848, pochi mesi dopo che fu realizzato in Nuova Scozia. Il Parlamento del Canada unito a Montreal fu dato alle fiamme da una folla di Tories nel 1849 dopo la scomparsa di un disegno di legge di indennizzo per le persone che subirono perdite durante la ribellione nel Lower Canada.

Ribellioni del 1837

Gli esploratori spagnoli avevano preso il comando nella costa nord -occidentale del Pacifico, con i viaggi di Juan José Pérez Hernández nel 1774 e nel 1775. Quando gli spagnoli decisero a costruire un forte sull'isola di Vancouver, il navigatore britannico James Cook aveva visitato il NOOTKA COOTCE con il cambio di fuga con il commercio di fusti da busta. Popoli per soddisfare il mercato vivace per le pellicole di mare in<a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-China" target="_blank">Cina</a> , lanciando così quello che divenne noto come il commercio cinese. Nel 1789 la guerra minacciò tra la Gran Bretagna e la Spagna sui rispettivi diritti; La crisi di Nootka è stata risolta pacificamente in gran parte a favore della Gran Bretagna, il potere navale molto più forte all'epoca. Nel 1793 Alexander MacKenzie, uno scozzese che lavora per la North West Company, attraversò il continente e con le sue guide aborigene e l'equipaggio francese-canadese, raggiunse la foce del fiume Bella Cooha, completando la prima attraversamento continentale a nord del Messico, mancando la spedizione di grafici di George Vancouver per poche settimane. Nel 1821, la North West Company e la Hudson's Bay Company si fondono, con un territorio commerciale combinato che fu esteso da una licenza al territorio nord-occidentale e ai distretti della Columbia e della New Caledonia, che raggiunse l'Oceano Artico a nord e l'Oceano Pacifico a ovest. La colonia dell'isola di Vancouver fu noleggiata nel 1849, con la posta commerciale a Fort Victoria come capitale. Questo fu seguito dalla colonia delle Isole Queen Charlotte nel 1853 e dalla creazione della colonia della British Columbia nel 1858 e dal territorio di Stikine nel 1861, con le ultime tre fondate espressamente per impedire a quelle regioni di essere invasa e annesse dai minatori d'oro americani. La colonia delle Isole della Regina Charlotte e la maggior parte del territorio Stikine furono fuse nella colonia della British Columbia nel 1863 (il resto, a nord del 60 ° parallelo, divenne parte del territorio nord-occidentale).

Columbia Britannica

Espansione territoriale a ovest

Usando il richiamo della Canadian Pacific Railway, una linea transcontinentale che unirebbe la nazione, Ottawa ha attirato il sostegno nelle marittime e nella Columbia Britannica. Nel 1866, la colonia della Columbia Britannica e la colonia dell'isola di Vancouver si fondevano in un'unica colonia della Columbia Britannica. Dopo che la terra di Rupert fu trasferita in Canada dalla Gran Bretagna nel 1870, connettendosi alle province orientali, la Columbia Britannica si unì al Canada nel 1871. Nel 1873, l'isola del Principe Edoardo si unì. Terranova, che non aveva alcuna utilità per una ferrovia transcontinentale - ha votato NO nel 1869 e non si è unito al Canada fino al 1949. Nel 1873, John A. MacDonald (primo primo ministro del Canada) creò la polizia montata a nord-ovest (ora la polizia montata canadese reale) per aiutare la polizia ai territori del nord-ovest. In particolare, i Mounties dovevano affermare la sovranità canadese per prevenire possibili invasioni americane nell'area. La prima missione su larga scala dei Mounties era quella di sopprimere il secondo movimento di indipendenza da parte di Métis di Manitoba, un popolo di naso misto di prime nazioni congiunte e origine europea, che ebbe origine a metà del 17 ° secolo. Il desiderio di indipendenza esplose nella ribellione del fiume Red nel 1869 e la successiva ribellione nord-occidentale nel 1885 guidata da Louis Riel.

Espansione West

Tre province nordamericane britanniche, la provincia del Canada, la Nuova Scozia e il New Brunswick, furono unite in una federazione chiamata Dominio del Canada, il 1 ° luglio 1867. Il termine Dominion fu scelto per indicare lo status del Canada come una politica autonoma dell'Impero britannico, la prima volta che fu usato per un paese. Con l'arrivo del British North America Act, 1867 (emanata dal Parlamento britannico), il Canada divenne un paese federato a sé stante. La federazione emerse da molteplici impulsi: gli inglesi volevano che il Canada si difendesse; I Maritimes avevano bisogno di collegamenti ferroviari, che furono promessi nel 1867; Il nazionalismo inglese-canadese ha cercato di unire le terre in un paese, dominato dalla lingua inglese e dalla cultura lealista; Molti canadesi francesi hanno visto l'opportunità di esercitare il controllo politico all'interno di un nuovo Quebec di lingua francese e esagerati paure di possibile espansione degli Stati Uniti verso nord. A livello politico, c'era il desiderio di espansione del governo responsabile e l'eliminazione del deadlock legislativo tra il Canada superiore e inferiore e il loro sostituto con le legislature provinciali in una federazione. Ciò è stato particolarmente spinto dal movimento di riforma liberale dell'Alto Canada e dalla parte francese-canadese nel Lower Canada che ha favorito un'unione decentralizzata rispetto al Partito conservatore canadese superiore e in una certa misura il Parti Bleu francese-canadese, che ha favorito un'unione centralizzata.

Dominio del Canada

La ribellione del Red River fu la sequenza di eventi che portò all'istituzione del 1869 di un governo provvisorio del leader di Métis Louis Riel e dei suoi seguaci alla Red River Colony, nelle prime fasi di stabilire oggi la provincia canadese di Manitoba. In precedenza era stato un territorio chiamato Rupert's Land ed era sotto controllo della Hudson's Bay Company prima che fosse venduta. Gli eventi furono la prima crisi che il nuovo governo federale affrontò dopo la confederazione canadese nel 1867. Il governo canadese aveva acquistato la terra di Rupert dalla Hudson's Bay Company nel 1869 e nominato governatore di lingua inglese, William McDougall. Fu opposto dagli abitanti per la maggior parte dei méti di lingua francese dell'insediamento. Prima che il terreno fosse stato trasferito ufficialmente in Canada, McDougall aveva inviato geometri per tracciare il terreno secondo il sistema di Township Square utilizzato nel sistema di rilevamento del terreno pubblico. La Métis, guidata da Riel, impediva a McDougall di entrare nel territorio. McDougall dichiarò che la Hudson's Bay Company non aveva più il controllo del territorio e che il Canada aveva chiesto di rinviare il trasferimento della sovranità. I Métis crearono un governo provvisorio a cui invitarono un numero uguale di rappresentanti degli anglofoni. Riel ha negoziato direttamente con il governo canadese per stabilire Manitoba come provincia canadese. Nel frattempo, gli uomini di Riel hanno arrestato i membri di una fazione filo-canadese che aveva resistito al governo provvisorio. Includevano un orangeman, Thomas Scott. Il governo di Riel ha provato e condannato Scott e lo ha eseguito per l'insubordinazione. Il Canada e il governo provvisorio di Assiniboia hanno presto negoziato un accordo. Nel 1870, il Parlamento del Canada approvò la legge di Manitoba, permettendo alla colonia del fiume Red di entrare nella Confederazione come provincia di Manitoba. La legge incorporava anche alcune delle richieste di Riel, come la fornitura di scuole francesi separate per i bambini di Métis e la protezione del cattolicesimo. Dopo aver raggiunto un accordo, il Canada ha inviato una spedizione militare a Manitoba per far rispettare l'autorità federale. Ora conosciuta come la spedizione di Wolseley, o la spedizione del Red River, consisteva in milizia canadese e soldati regolari britannici, guidati dal colonnello Garnet Wolseley. L'indignazione è cresciuta in Ontario per l'esecuzione di Scott e molti volevano la spedizione di Wolseley per arrestare Riel per omicidio e sopprimere quella che consideravano ribellione. Riel si ritirò pacificamente da Fort Garry prima che le truppe potessero arrivare nell'agosto 1870. Avvertiva da molti che i soldati lo avrebbero danneggiato e negarono Amnisty per la sua leadership politica della ribellione, Riel fuggì negli Stati Uniti. L'arrivo delle truppe ha segnato la fine dell'incidente.

Red River Rebellion

Man mano che il Canada si espandeva, il governo canadese piuttosto che i trattati negoziati della Corona britannica con i popoli delle First Nations residenti, a partire dal Trattato 1 nel 1871. I trattati estinguono il titolo aborigeno sui territori tradizionali, crearono riserve per l'uso esclusivo delle popolazioni indigene e aprirono il resto del territorio per la transazione. Gli indigeni furono indotti a passare a queste nuove riserve, a volte forzatamente. Il governo impose alla legge indiana nel 1876 di governare le relazioni tra il governo federale e le popolazioni indigene e governare le relazioni tra i nuovi coloni e le popolazioni indigene. Ai sensi dell'Indian Act, il governo ha iniziato il sistema scolastico residenziale per integrare le popolazioni indigene e "civilizzarli".

Atto indiano

La ribellione nord-occidentale fu una resistenza da parte del popolo di Métis sotto Louis Riel e una rivolta associata da parte delle prime nazioni Cree e Assiniboine del distretto del Saskatchewan contro il governo canadese. Molti Métis sentivano che il Canada non stava proteggendo i loro diritti, la loro terra e la loro sopravvivenza come popolo distinto. Riel era stato invitato a guidare il movimento della protesta; Lo trasformò in un'azione militare con un tono fortemente religioso. Che alienato clero cattolico, ai bianchi, alla maggior parte delle tribù indigene e ad alcuni Métis, ma aveva la fedeltà di 200 Métis armati, un numero minore di altri guerrieri indigeni e almeno un uomo bianco a Batoche nel maggio 1885, che confondono il 900 milizia canadese e alcuni residenti locali armati. Circa 91 persone morivano nei combattimenti avvenuti quella primavera prima del crollo della resistenza. Nonostante alcune notevoli prime vittorie a Duck Lake, Fish Creek e Cut Knife, la resistenza è stata annullata quando le travolgenti forze governative e una carenza critica di forniture hanno causato la sconfitta della Métis nella battaglia di quattro giorni di Batoche. I restanti alleati aborigeni sparsi. Diversi capi sono stati catturati e alcuni hanno scontato tempo in prigione. Otto uomini sono stati impiccati nella più grande sospensione del Canada, per gli omicidi eseguiti al di fuori del conflitto militare. Riel è stato catturato, messo in prova e condannato per tradimento. Nonostante molti motivi in ​​tutto il Canada per clemenza, è stato impiccato. Riel divenne un eroico martire del Francofono Canada. Questa era una causa per l'ascesa di tensioni etniche in una profonda divisione, le cui ripercussioni continuano a essere sentite. La soppressione del conflitto ha contribuito alla realtà attuale delle province della prateria controllata dai parlanti inglesi, che hanno permesso solo una presenza francofono molto limitata, e ha contribuito a causare l'alienazione dei canadesi francesi, che sono stati amareggiati dalla repressione dei loro connazionali. Il ruolo chiave che la ferrovia del Pacifico canadese ha svolto nel trasporto di truppe ha causato l'aumento del sostegno del governo conservatore e il Parlamento ha autorizzato i fondi per completare la prima ferrovia transcontinentale del paese.

Ribellione nord-occidentale

Il Klondike Gold Rush fu una migrazione di circa 100.000 prospettori nella regione di Klondike nello Yukon, nel nord-ovest del Canada, tra il 1896 e il 1899. L'oro fu scoperto lì dai minatori locali il 16 agosto 1896; Quando le notizie raggiunsero Seattle e San Francisco l'anno successivo, innescò una fuga di potenziatori. Alcuni divennero ricchi, ma la maggioranza andò invano. È stato immortalato in film, letteratura e fotografie. Per raggiungere i campi d'oro, la maggior parte dei prospettitori ha preso il percorso attraverso i porti di Dyea e Skagway, nel sud -est dell'Alaska. Qui, i "Klondikers" potrebbero seguire i percorsi di Chilkoot o White Pass fino al fiume Yukon e navigare verso il Klondike. Le autorità canadesi hanno richiesto a ciascuno di loro di portare un anno di cibo di cibo, al fine di prevenire la fame. Complessivamente, l'attrezzatura dei Klondikers pesava vicino a una tonnellata, che si trasportava più in fase. Eseguire questo compito e contenere con il terreno montuoso e il clima freddo, significava che coloro che persistevano non arrivarono fino all'estate 1898. Una volta lì, trovarono poche opportunità e molti lasciarono delusi. <img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Klondike_Routes_Map2.png" /> Mappa dei percorsi a Klondike. © National Park Service Per ospitare i prospettori, le città del boom sono nate lungo le rotte. Al loro capolinea, Dawson City è stata fondata alla confluenza dei fiumi Klondike e Yukon. Da una popolazione di 500 nel 1896, la città cresceva per ospitare circa 30.000 persone nell'estate del 1898. Costruito in legno, isolato e non sanitario, Dawson soffriva di incendi, prezzi elevati ed epidemie. Nonostante ciò, i prospettori più ricchi hanno trascorso in modo stravagante, il gioco d'azzardo e il bere nei saloni. Gli indigeni Hän, d'altra parte, soffrivano della corsa; Furono spostati con la forza in una riserva per far posto ai Klondikers e molti morirono. A partire dal 1898, i giornali che avevano incoraggiato così tanti a recarsi al Klondike hanno perso interesse. Nell'estate del 1899, l'oro fu scoperto intorno a Nome nell'Alaska occidentale e molti prospettori lasciarono il Klondike per i nuovi Goldfields, segnando la fine della corsa di Klondike. Le città del boom diminuirono e la popolazione di Dawson City cadde. La produzione di mining d'oro nel Klondike ha raggiunto il picco nel 1903 dopo che è stata introdotta l'equipaggiamento più pesante. Da allora, il Klondike è stato estratto e spento, e oggi l'eredità attira i turisti nella regione e contribuisce alla sua prosperità.

Klondike Gold Rush

Nel 1905, Saskatchewan e Alberta furono ammessi come province. Stavano crescendo rapidamente grazie alle abbondanti colture di grano che hanno attirato l'immigrazione nelle pianure da <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-Ukraine" target="_blank">ucraini</a> e europei settentrionali e centrali e da coloni provenienti dagli Stati Uniti, dalla Gran Bretagna e dal Canada orientale.

Saskatchewan e Alberta

Guerre mondiali e anni tracorsa

Le forze canadesi e la partecipazione civile alla <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/World-War-I" target="_blank">prima guerra mondiale</a> hanno contribuito a favorire un senso di nazionalità britannica-canadese. Gli alti punti militari canadesi durante la prima guerra mondiale arrivarono durante le battaglie di Somme, Vimy, Passchendaele e ciò che in seguito divenne noto come "cento giorni del Canada". La reputazione delle truppe canadesi guadagnate, insieme al successo degli assi volanti canadesi tra cui William George Barker e Billy Bishop, hanno contribuito a dare alla nazione un nuovo senso di identità. L'ufficio di guerra nel 1922 riportava circa 67.000 uccisi e 173.000 feriti durante la guerra. Ciò esclude le morti civili in episodi di guerra come l'esplosione di Halifax. Il sostegno alla Gran Bretagna durante la prima guerra mondiale ha causato una grave crisi politica sulla coscrizione, con francofoni, principalmente dal Quebec, respingendo le politiche nazionali. Durante la crisi, un gran numero di alieni nemici (in particolare ucraini e tedeschi) sono stati messi sotto i controlli del governo. Il Partito liberale è stato profondamente diviso, con la maggior parte dei suoi leader anglofoni che si sono uniti al governo unionista guidato dal Primo Ministro Robert Borden, leader del partito conservatore. I liberali riacquistarono la loro influenza dopo la guerra sotto la guida di William Lyon Mackenzie King, che prestò servizio come primo ministro con tre termini separati tra il 1921 e il 1949.

Prima guerra mondiale

Quando fu fondata il Canada, le donne non potevano votare alle elezioni federali. Le donne avevano un voto locale in alcune province, come in Canada West dal 1850, dove le donne che possiedono terreni potevano votare per i fiduciari scolastici. Nel 1900 altre province adottarono disposizioni simili e nel 1916 Manitoba prese la guida nell'estensione del suffragio per donne piene. Contemporaneamente i suffragisti hanno dato un forte sostegno al movimento del proibizione, specialmente in Ontario e nelle province occidentali. Il Military Voters Act del 1917 diede il voto alle donne britanniche che erano vedove di guerra o che avevano figli o mariti che prestavano servizio all'estero. Il Primo Ministro dei sindacalisti Borden si impegnò durante la campagna del 1917 per eguagliare il suffragio per le donne. Dopo la sua vittoria frana, ha introdotto un disegno di legge nel 1918 per aver esteso il franchising alle donne. Ciò è passato senza divisione ma non si è applicato alle elezioni provinciali e municipali del Quebec. Le donne del Quebec ottennero il pieno suffragio nel 1940. La prima donna eletta in Parlamento fu Agnes MacPhail dell'Ontario nel 1921.

Suffragio femminile in Canada

La Grande Depressione mondiale dei primi anni '30 fu uno shock sociale ed economico che lasciò milioni di canadesi disoccupati, affamati e spesso senzatetto. Pochi paesi sono stati colpiti severamente come il Canada durante quello che è diventato noto come "Trenta sporca", a causa della pesante dipendenza del Canada dalle esportazioni di materie prime e agricole, combinate con una siccità paralizzante delle praterie conosciuta come Dust Bowl. Le perdite diffuse di posti di lavoro e risparmi alla fine hanno trasformato il paese innescando la nascita del benessere sociale, una varietà di movimenti politici populisti e un ruolo più attivista per il governo nell'economia. Nel 1930-1931 il governo canadese rispose alla Grande Depressione applicando gravi restrizioni all'ingresso in Canada. Le nuove regole limitavano l'immigrazione a soggetti britannici e americani o agricoltori con denaro, alcune classi di lavoratori e una famiglia immediata dei residenti canadesi.

Grande depressione in Canada

A seguito della Dichiarazione di Balfour del 1926, il parlamento britannico approvò lo statuto di Westminster nel 1931 che riconosceva il Canada come coequal con il Regno Unito e gli altri Regni del Commonwealth. Fu un passo cruciale nello sviluppo del Canada come stato separato in quanto prevedeva un'autonomia legislativa quasi completa dal Parlamento del <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-England" target="_blank">Regno Unito</a> . Lo statuto di Westminster concede l'indipendenza politica del Canada dalla Gran Bretagna, compreso il diritto a una politica estera indipendente.

Indipendenza politica

Il coinvolgimento del Canada nella <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/World-War-II" target="_blank">seconda guerra mondiale</a> iniziò quando il Canada dichiarò la guerra alla <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-Germany" target="_blank">Germania nazista</a> il 10 settembre 1939, ritardandolo una settimana dopo che la Gran Bretagna agiva per dimostrare simbolicamente l'indipendenza. Il Canada ha svolto un ruolo importante nella fornitura di cibo, materie prime, munizioni e denaro all'economia britannica, addestrando aviatori per il Commonwealth, a guardia della metà occidentale dell'Oceano Atlantico del Nord contro le U-boat tedesche e fornendo truppe di combattimento per le invasioni di Italia, Francia e Germania nel 1943-45. Di una popolazione di circa 11,5 milioni, 1,1 milioni di canadesi hanno prestato servizio nelle forze armate della seconda guerra mondiale. Molte migliaia sono servite con la Marina mercantile canadese. Complessivamente, oltre 45.000 sono morti e altri 55.000 sono stati feriti. Costruire la Royal Canadian Air Force era una priorità; Fu tenuto separato dalla Royal Air Force in Gran Bretagna. L'accordo britannico del Commonwealth Air Training, firmato nel dicembre 1939, ha vinto il Canada, la Gran Bretagna, la Nuova Zelanda e l'Australia a un programma che alla fine ha formato metà degli aviatori da quelle quattro nazioni della seconda guerra mondiale. La battaglia dell'Atlantico iniziò immediatamente e dal 1943 al 1945 fu guidata da Leonard W. Murray, dalla Nuova Scozia. Le U-boat tedesche operavano nelle acque canadesi e di Terranova per tutta la guerra, affondando molte navi navali e commerciali. L'esercito canadese fu coinvolto nella fallita difesa di Hong Kong, l'incursione Dieppe infruttuosa nell'agosto 1942, l'invasione alleata dell'Italia e l'invasione di grande successo della Francia e dei Paesi Bassi nel 1944-1945. Dal lato politico, Mackenzie King ha respinto qualsiasi nozione di governo di unità nazionale. Le elezioni federali del 1940 furono tenute normalmente previste, producendo un'altra maggioranza per i liberali. La crisi di coscrizione del 1944 colpì notevolmente l'unità tra canadesi francesi e di lingua inglese, sebbene non fosse politicamente invadente come quella della <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/World-War-I" target="_blank">prima guerra mondiale</a> . Durante la guerra, il Canada divenne più strettamente legato agli Stati Uniti, gli americani prese il controllo virtuale di Yukon per costruire l'autostrada dell'Alaska e furono una presenza importante nella colonia britannica di Terranova con grandi barre aeree. Dopo l'inizio della guerra con<a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-Japan" target="_blank">il Giappone</a> nel dicembre del 1941, il governo, in collaborazione con gli Stati Uniti, iniziò l'internamento giapponese-canadese, che inviò 22.000 residenti della British Columbia di origine giapponese ai campi di trasferimento lontano dalla costa. Il motivo era un'intensa domanda pubblica di rimozione e timori di spionaggio o sabotaggio. Il governo ha ignorato i rapporti dell'RCMP e dell'esercito canadese secondo cui la maggior parte dei giapponesi era rispettosa della legge e non una minaccia.

Canada nella seconda guerra mondiale

Il Canada era un membro fondatore della North Atlantic Trattaty Organization (NATO) nel 1949, il North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) nel 1958, e ebbe un ruolo da protagonista nelle operazioni di mantenimento del pace delle Nazioni Unite: la <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/Korean-War" target="_blank">guerra di Corea</a> della Corea, la creazione di una forza di pace (1964). (1973), Vietnam (con la International Control Commission), Golan Heights, Libano (1978) e Namibia (1989-1990). Il Canada non ha seguito il comando americano in tutte le azioni <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/Cold-War" target="_blank">della guerra fredda</a> , a volte con conseguenti tensioni tra i due paesi. Ad esempio, il Canada ha rifiutato di unirsi alla guerra del Vietnam; Nel 1984, le ultime armi nucleari con sede in Canada furono rimosse; Le relazioni diplomatiche sono state mantenute con Cuba; E il governo canadese ha riconosciuto la <a href="https://history-maps.com/it/story/History-of-the-Peoples-Republic-of-China" target="_blank">Repubblica popolare cinese</a> davanti agli Stati Uniti. L'esercito canadese ha mantenuto una presenza permanente nell'Europa occidentale come parte del suo dispiegamento della NATO in diverse basi in Germania, tra cui lunghe manche al CFB Baden-Soellingen e CFB Lahr, nella regione forestale nera della Germania occidentale. Inoltre, le strutture militari canadesi furono mantenute a Bermuda, Francia e Regno Unito. Dall'inizio degli anni '60 fino agli anni '80, il Canada manteneva piattaforme di armi armate di armi nucleari, tra cui razzi aria-aria a punta nucleare, missili da superficie all'aria e bombe a gravità ad alto rendimento principalmente schierate nel teatro delle operazioni dell'Europa occidentale, nonché in Canada.

Canada nella guerra fredda

La rivoluzione silenziosa fu un periodo di intenso cambiamento socio-politico e socioculturale nel Canada francese che iniziò in Quebec dopo l'elezione del 1960, caratterizzato dall'efficace secolarizzazione del governo, dalla creazione di uno stato sociale a livello statale, nonché al riallineamento della politica del 1976. Un cambiamento primario fu uno sforzo da parte del governo provinciale di assumere un controllo più diretto sui campi di assistenza sanitaria e istruzione, che in precedenza era stata nelle mani del vecchio stabilimento incentrato sulla Chiesa cattolica romana e portava alla modernizzazione dell'economia e della società. Ha creato ministeri di salute e istruzione, ampliato il servizio pubblico e ha fatto enormi investimenti nel sistema di istruzione pubblica e nelle infrastrutture provinciali. Il governo ha inoltre consentito l'unione del servizio civile. Ci sono volute misure per aumentare il controllo di Québécois sull'economia della provincia e sulla produzione e nella distribuzione nazionalizzata per l'elettricità e ha lavorato per stabilire il piano pensionistico Canada/Québec. Hydro-Québec è stato anche creato nel tentativo di nazionalizzare le compagnie elettriche del Québec. I francesi-canadesi in Québec hanno anche adottato il nuovo nome "Québécois", cercando di creare un'identità separata sia dal resto del Canada che dalla Francia e si stabilisce come una provincia riformata. La rivoluzione tranquilla fu un periodo di sviluppo economico e sociale sfrenato in Québec, Canada francese e Canada; Ha parallelo a sviluppi simili in Occidente in generale. Era un sottoprodotto dell'espansione del dopoguerra del Canada e della posizione del Québec come provincia leader per più di un secolo prima e dopo la confederazione. Ha assistito a particolari modifiche all'ambiente costruito e alle strutture sociali di Montreal, la principale città del Québec. La rivoluzione silenziosa si estendeva anche oltre i confini del Québec in virtù della sua influenza sulla politica canadese contemporanea. Durante la stessa era del rinnovato nazionalismo del Quebecois, i canadesi francesi si sono fatti strada sia nella struttura che nella direzione del governo federale e della politica nazionale.

Rivoluzione tranquilla

Nel 1965, il Canada adottò la bandiera di Maple Leaf, sebbene non senza notevoli dibattiti e dubbi tra un gran numero di canadesi inglesi.

Foglia d'acero

Storia del Canada

John Cabot, known in Italian as Giovanni Caboto, was an Italian navigator and explorer born around 1450. He undertook a significant voyage in 1497 to the coast of North America under the commission of Henry VII, King of England. This expedition marked the earliest known European exploration of coastal North America since the Norse visits to Vinland in the eleventh century. Cabot's name appears in various forms across different languages, reflecting a tradition of adapting names in local contexts. He signed his name as 'Zuan Chabotto' in Venice and was referred to as 'Giovanni' by his Italian banker in London.Cabot was born in Italy, likely in Gaeta or Castiglione Chiavarese, to Giulio Caboto and his wife, and he had a brother named Piero. He became a citizen of the Republic of Venice in 1476, having resided there since at least 1461. His early life included involvement in maritime trade, which provided him with knowledge of Eastern merchandise. By 1484, he was married to Mattea and had several sons, including Sebastian. However, financial difficulties led him to leave Venice as an insolvent debtor in 1488, eventually moving to Valencia, Spain, where he proposed improvements to the harbor.Cabot later moved to Seville, where he worked on a bridge project before seeking support for an Atlantic expedition. He arrived in England around 1495, where he sought financing and royal patronage for his voyage. Unlike Columbus, whose expeditions were primarily funded by Spain, Cabot aimed to find a northern passage to Asia. His royal patent, issued in 1496, mandated that all expeditions be launched from Bristol, establishing the city as a key port for English exploration.Cabot's first voyage, believed to have occurred in the summer of 1496, was not well-documented, but it is known that he faced challenges with supplies and weather, leading him to return early. His second voyage, which began on 2 May 1497, was more successful. Cabot sailed with a small crew aboard the ship Matthew of Bristol, making landfall on 24 June 1497. The exact location of this landing is debated, with possibilities including Cape Bonavista and St. John's in Newfoundland. During this expedition, Cabot claimed the land for England and raised the Venetian and Papal banners, although there was no contact with Indigenous peoples.Upon returning to Bristol, Cabot reported to King Henry VII and received a reward of £10. He was celebrated for his achievements, although royal attention soon shifted due to other political matters. In December 1497, he was granted a pension of £20 per year, backdated to March of that year. Cabot was also given new letters patent in February 1498 to prepare for another expedition.In May 1498, Cabot departed with a fleet of five ships, intending to engage in trade. Reports indicate that one ship encountered a storm and landed in Ireland, while Cabot continued on. The fate of this expedition remains unclear, with speculation that Cabot may have died at sea, returned to England, or chosen to remain in the Americas. Some historians suggest that he successfully returned in 1500 after an extensive exploration of the North American coast.Cabot's legacy includes his role in early English exploration of North America, and his son, Sebastian Cabot, also became an explorer. The Cabot Project at the University of Bristol continues to research his expeditions and their significance in the context of transatlantic exploration.

John Cabot

Jacques Cartier, born on 31 December 1491 in Saint-Malo, Brittany, was a French maritime explorer. He was the first European to describe and map the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the Saint Lawrence River, naming the region 'The Country of Canadas' after the Iroquoian term for the two large settlements he encountered at Stadacona (present-day Quebec City) and Hochelaga (Montreal Island). Cartier's voyages provided the first European accounts of this territory and its inhabitants during a time when Spain was expanding its influence in the Americas.Cartier's early life included a respectable career as a mariner, and he elevated his social standing by marrying Mary Catherine des Granches in 1520. His reputation in Saint-Malo was notable, as evidenced by his frequent appearances in local baptismal records.In 1534, Cartier was introduced to King Francis I by Jean Le Veneur, the bishop of Saint-Malo. Following this introduction, Cartier received a commission to explore the New World, aiming to find a western passage to the East Indies. He set sail on 20 April 1534, reaching Newfoundland and exploring the Gulf of St. Lawrence, including the coasts of Labrador and Gaspé. During this voyage, he encountered the Mi'kmaq and later the St. Lawrence Iroquoians, claiming the land for France by planting a cross at Gaspé Bay on 24 July. He kidnapped two sons of the Iroquoian chief Donnacona, intending to bring them back to France for trade purposes. Cartier returned to France in September 1534, believing he had reached Asia.Cartier embarked on a second voyage on 19 May 1535, this time with three ships and 110 men, including his Iroquoian captives. He navigated the St. Lawrence River, reaching Stadacona and then Hochelaga by 2 October 1535. The latter settlement was more impressive than Stadacona, with a large population welcoming the French. Cartier believed the river could lead to the Northwest Passage, naming the rapids La Chine. He and his crew spent the winter of 1535-1536 in Stadacona, where they faced severe conditions, including scurvy. A remedy provided by the Iroquoians helped them survive. Cartier returned to France on 15 July 1536, having completed a 14-month voyage.On 23 May 1541, Cartier began his third voyage, tasked with establishing a permanent settlement in Canada. He anchored at Stadacona but chose to settle at Cap-Rouge, where he established Charlesbourg-Royal. The expedition aimed to find the fabled 'Kingdom of Saguenay' and its riches. However, relations with the Iroquoians deteriorated, leading to attacks on the settlement. Cartier left for France in June 1542, encountering Jean-François de La Rocque de Roberval, who had been appointed to lead the colonization effort. Cartier returned to France, believing he had discovered valuable minerals, but these were later identified as quartz and iron pyrites.Cartier spent his later years in Saint-Malo, where he died on 1 September 1557, possibly from typhus. He was buried in Saint-Malo Cathedral. His explorations opened the St. Lawrence River to European penetration and laid the groundwork for future French claims in North America. Cartier's voyages were significant in documenting the name Canada, derived from the Huron-Iroquois word for village, which he used to describe the territory he explored. His contributions to the exploration of Canada were pivotal, marking the first European penetration into the continent's interior along the St. Lawrence River.

Jacques Cartier

Pierre Dugua de Mons, also known as Du Gua de Monts, was born around 1558 in the Château de Mons, Royan, Saintonge, France. He was a Calvinist and the son of Guy and Claire Goumard Dugua. Dugua de Mons served in the religious wars for Henri IV of France, earning a pension of 1,200 crowns and the governorship of Pons in recognition of his service. His exploration of northeastern North America began in 1599 with Pierre de Chauvin de Tonnetuit.In 1603, King Henry IV granted Dugua exclusive rights to colonize lands in North America between 40° and 60° North latitude, along with a monopoly on the fur trade in these territories. He was appointed Lieutenant General for Acadia and New France, with the obligation to bring 60 new colonists each year. In 1604, he organized an expedition funded by merchants from Rouen, Saint-Malo, and La Rochelle, departing with 79 settlers, including notable figures such as François Gravé Du Pont, Samuel de Champlain, and Mathieu de Costa.The expedition reached Baie Française (the Bay of Fundy) in June 1604, where they established a colony on St. Croix Island. The settlers faced severe hardships during the winter, leading to high mortality rates due to scurvy and resource depletion. In 1605, the colony relocated to Port-Royal on the south shore of Baie Française, seeking a more hospitable environment.During their exploration, the French encountered Native Americans and learned about their agricultural practices. Samuel de Champlain documented these interactions, noting the diversity of languages and the cultivation methods observed. In 1606, the Dutch West India Company captain Hendrick Lonck attacked two of Dugua's vessels, stealing furs and munitions. Despite some initial success, the Port-Royal settlement faced challenges, and in 1607, due to protests against the monopoly, Dugua and the settlers abandoned the colony and returned to France.Dugua then focused on the St. Lawrence River valley, ceding Port-Royal to Poutrincourt. He never returned to the New World but sent Champlain to establish a colony at Quebec in 1608, significantly contributing to the foundation of the first permanent French colony in North America. From 1610 to 1617, he served as Governor of Pons, overseeing the construction of a grand staircase that connected the upper and lower parts of the city. Pierre Dugua de Mons died in 1628 at the Château d'Ardenne in Fléac-sur-Seugne.

Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons

Samuel de Champlain, baptized on 13 August 1574, was a French explorer and navigator who played a pivotal role in the establishment of New France in North America. He made between 21 and 29 voyages across the Atlantic Ocean, founding Quebec City on 3 July 1608. As a skilled cartographer, Champlain produced the first accurate maps of North America's eastern coastline and the Great Lakes, integrating his observations with information from Indigenous peoples. His maps and writings significantly enhanced European understanding of the geography and cultures of northeastern North America.Champlain was born into a family of mariners, likely in the French province of Aunis. His early education focused on practical maritime skills, including navigation and cartography. He gained military experience serving in King Henry IV's army during the French Wars of Religion. His exploration of North America began in 1603 under the guidance of François Gravé Du Pont, and he contributed to the establishment of Port Royal in Acadia from 1604 to 1607, the first permanent European settlement north of Florida.In Quebec, Champlain formed alliances with the Innu, Algonquin, and Wendat peoples, which were crucial for the survival of New France. He participated in their conflicts against the Iroquois confederacy and documented his ethnographic observations in published works. In 1620, King Louis XIII directed Champlain to focus on colonial administration rather than exploration. Although he never held the formal title of governor, he effectively governed New France until his death on 25 December 1635.Champlain's early travels included a significant expedition to the West Indies and Mexico from 1599 to 1602, where he gathered valuable information that earned him a pension from King Henry IV. His first trip to North America in 1603 involved a fur-trading expedition, during which he created a map of the Saint Lawrence River and established positive relations with the Montagnais. He continued to explore the region, ultimately selecting Quebec as the site for a new French colony.In 1609, Champlain allied with the Wendat and Algonquin tribes to combat the Iroquois, marking the beginning of a series of military engagements. He successfully led a campaign against the Iroquois, which temporarily subdued them. Champlain's marriage to Hélène Boullé in 1610, though initially troubled, provided him with connections to the French court.Champlain's later years were marked by administrative efforts in New France. He oversaw the construction of Fort Saint-Louis and negotiated treaties with Indigenous tribes. In 1627, he became an investor in the Compagnie des Cent-Associés, which managed the fur trade. His leadership was tested during the English siege of Quebec in 1629, which resulted in the temporary loss of the colony. However, he regained control in 1633 and continued to expand Quebec's fortifications and settlements.Champlain suffered a stroke in October 1635 and died in December of the same year. His legacy includes numerous geographical features named in his honor, such as Lake Champlain, and he is recognized as the 'Father of New France.' His contributions to exploration, cartography, and colonial administration have left a lasting impact on the history of North America.

Samuel de Champlain

René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, was born on November 22, 1643, in Rouen, France, to Jean Cavelier and Catherine Geest. He joined the Jesuit order in his teens but left in 1667 to pursue a career as a colonist in North America. He arrived in New France in 1666, where he was granted a seigneurie at Lachine, near Montreal. La Salle began issuing land grants and learning the languages of local Iroquois tribes.La Salle sought to explore the Ohio River, motivated by reports from the Seneca tribe. He received permission from Governor Daniel Courcelle and Intendant Jean Talon to embark on an expedition in 1669. He traveled with a group of men and Native guides, reaching Irondequoit Bay after a month. However, the expedition faced delays due to the Seneca's reluctance to provide guides and La Salle's illness. The expedition's details remain unclear, as La Salle's journal was lost, and subsequent accounts are often contradictory.Between 1671 and 1673, La Salle constructed Fort Frontenac at the mouth of the Cataraqui River to control the fur trade in the Great Lakes region. He secured a grant for the fort and letters of nobility during a trip to France in 1674-75. La Salle rebuilt Fort Frontenac in stone and used it as a base for further expeditions.In 1678, La Salle and his lieutenant, Henri de Tonti, traveled to Niagara Falls, where they built Fort Conti. La Salle constructed the ship Le Griffon, which he sailed to present-day Green Bay, Wisconsin, before it was lost at sea. He continued his explorations along the Great Lakes and the Illinois River, establishing Fort Crèvecoeur near Peoria, Illinois, in 1680.In 1682, La Salle led an expedition down the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico, claiming the entire Mississippi basin for France and naming it La Louisiane in honor of Louis XIV. He established Fort Saint-Louis of Illinois to secure French interests in the region before returning to France.On July 24, 1684, La Salle embarked on a new expedition to establish a French colony at the mouth of the Mississippi River. The expedition faced numerous challenges, including piracy and navigational errors. They founded a settlement near present-day Victoria, Texas, but La Salle's attempts to locate the Mississippi's mouth were unsuccessful. The flagship La Belle sank, stranding the colonists.On March 19, 1687, La Salle was killed by a member of his own party during an ambush in Texas. His colony ultimately failed, with the remaining settlers killed by Native Americans or lost in the wilderness. La Salle's explorations significantly expanded French territorial claims in North America, and he is remembered for his contributions to the fur trade and the establishment of French presence in the region.

René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle

Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester, was born on 3 September 1724 in Strabane, County Tyrone, in an Ulster Protestant military family. He was one of three brothers who served in the British military. After his father's death in 1738, his education was overseen by his stepfather, Reverend Thomas Skelton. Carleton joined the 25th Regiment of Foot as an ensign in 1742 and was promoted to lieutenant in 1745. He may have participated in the Battle of Culloden during the Jacobite rising of 1745. Carleton's military career progressed as he served in the War of the Austrian Succession and later in the Seven Years' War, where he was involved in campaigns in Flanders and North America.In 1758, Carleton was appointed quarter-master general under Major General James Wolfe during the campaign against Quebec. He was wounded at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in 1759 and returned to Britain afterward. He participated in the attack on Belle Île in 1761 and was wounded again. By 1766, Carleton was appointed acting Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, and in 1768, he became Captain General and Governor-in-Chief. His administration faced challenges, including the integration of Quebec into the British system and managing relations with both French and British settlers.Carleton married Lady Maria Howard in 1772, and they had eleven children. He was promoted to major general in 1772 and played a significant role in the American Revolutionary War. He defended Quebec against American forces in 1775 and 1776, successfully repelling invasions and leading counteroffensives. Carleton was appointed Commander-in-Chief of British forces in North America in 1782, overseeing the evacuation of Loyalists and freedmen from New York City in 1783, which included the creation of the Book of Negroes to document those who were promised freedom by the British.After the war, Carleton returned to Britain and was appointed Governor-in-Chief of British North America in 1786, receiving the title of Baron Dorchester. He faced difficulties in exercising authority over multiple provinces and was largely focused on Quebec. The Constitutional Act of 1791 divided Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada, and Carleton's influence diminished. He returned to Britain in 1796 and lived in retirement until his death on 10 November 1808 at Stubbings House in Berkshire, where he was buried in the parish church of St Swithun's, Nately Scures.

Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester

Major-General James Wolfe was born on 2 January 1727 in Westerham, Kent, as the elder son of Colonel Edward Wolfe and Henrietta Thompson. He began his military career at the age of thirteen, joining his father's regiment as a volunteer. Wolfe's early service included participation in the War of the Austrian Succession, where he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in 1741 and later transferred to the 12th Regiment of Foot. He served in Flanders and was promoted to lieutenant and then captain, gaining recognition for his leadership during the Battle of Dettingen in 1743.Wolfe's career progressed despite interruptions due to the Peace Treaty of 1748, which limited military engagements. He spent several years on garrison duty in Scotland, where he wrote military pamphlets and improved his language skills. The outbreak of the Seven Years' War in 1756 provided new opportunities for advancement. Wolfe participated in an unsuccessful raid on Rochefort in 1757, which led to his appointment as second-in-command of an expedition to capture the Fortress of Louisbourg in 1758. His successful leadership during the siege earned him a promotion to brigadier general.In early 1759, Wolfe was appointed to lead the British assault on Quebec City. He faced significant challenges, including a well-fortified French defense under the command of Marquis de Montcalm. Wolfe's forces laid siege to Quebec for three months, employing psychological tactics to intimidate the French-Canadian civilians. After a series of unsuccessful attacks, Wolfe executed a daring amphibious landing at the Plains of Abraham on 13 September 1759, surprising the French forces. The ensuing battle lasted only fifteen minutes, resulting in a decisive British victory.During the battle, Wolfe was mortally wounded by three musket balls. He died shortly after witnessing the retreat of the French forces, expressing satisfaction with his achievements. The victory at Quebec was pivotal, leading to the eventual British capture of Montreal and the end of French colonial rule in Canada. Wolfe's body was returned to Britain and interred in St Alfege Church, Greenwich, alongside his father. His legacy as a military leader was solidified through various memorials and commemorations, including the famous painting 'The Death of General Wolfe' and numerous locations named in his honor across Canada and the United Kingdom.

James Wolfe

Thayendanegea, known as Joseph Brant, was born in March 1743 along the Cuyahoga River in the Ohio Country. He belonged to the Mohawk tribe and was raised in a matrilineal society, which influenced his upbringing and social standing. His mother, Margaret, returned to New York with him and his sister Molly after their father's death. The family settled in Canajoharie, where Brant's mother became a successful businesswoman in the ginseng trade, which connected them to influential figures like Sir William Johnson, the British Superintendent of Indian Affairs. Brant's education was supported by Johnson, who recognized his potential and introduced him to colonial leaders.Brant's military career began during the French and Indian War, where he served as a scout and warrior for the British. He participated in several key battles and was recognized for his service. After the war, he continued to work as an interpreter and became involved in land disputes, advocating for the rights of the Mohawk against encroaching settlers. His relationship with Johnson and other British officials helped him rise to prominence within the Iroquois Confederacy, despite not being born into a hereditary leadership role.During the American Revolutionary War, Brant aligned himself with the British, leading Mohawk and Loyalist forces against American rebels. He was involved in several significant battles, including the Battle of Oriskany, where he gained a reputation as a fierce and effective leader. His actions during the war earned him the nickname 'Monster Brant' from American colonists, who accused him of committing atrocities, although some accounts suggest he showed restraint towards non-combatants.After the war, Brant was instrumental in negotiating land grants for the Mohawk in Canada, specifically in the Grand River valley, where he established a new community known as Brant's Town. He worked to recreate the social and cultural environment of his homeland while also adapting to the new realities of life in Canada. Brant's leadership was marked by his efforts to secure land rights for the Iroquois and to foster unity among Indigenous nations.Brant's later years were characterized by ongoing conflicts with British authorities over land sales and governance. He sought to modernize the Iroquois community and promote economic independence, but faced resistance from both colonial officials and some members of his own community. His attempts to mediate between the British and American interests were complicated by the changing political landscape and the decline of British influence in North America.Joseph Brant died on November 24, 1807, in Burlington, Ontario. His legacy is complex, as he navigated the challenges of his time, advocating for his people's rights while also engaging with colonial powers. His life reflects the struggles of Indigenous leaders during a period of significant upheaval and change in North America.

Joseph Brant

Samuel Hearne was born in February 1745 in London. His father, who served as Secretary of the Waterworks of London Bridge, died in 1748. Hearne's family moved to Netherbury in Dorset, where he was educated in Beaminster. At the age of 11, he joined the British Royal Navy in 1756 as a midshipman under Captain Samuel Hood, participating in significant naval actions during the Seven Years' War. He left the Navy in 1763 after serving in the English Channel and the Mediterranean.In February 1766, Hearne joined the Hudson's Bay Company as a mate on the sloop Churchill, involved in the Inuit trade. He later served on the Brigantine Charlotte and discovered the remains of James Knight's 1719 expedition on Marble Island in 1767. Hearne gained a reputation for his snowshoeing skills and improved his navigational abilities by observing William Wales, who was at Hudson Bay to observe the Transit of Venus.In 1768, Hearne was tasked with searching for a copper mine after First Nations brought copper to Churchill. His first journey began on 6 November 1769, but he faced challenges due to a lack of provisions and game, leading to a return to Churchill by 11 December. For his second journey, he left on 23 February 1771, relying on Cree hunters for support. This journey also faced hardships, including food shortages, but he managed to reach Lake Dubawnt before returning to Churchill in the autumn.Hearne's third journey commenced in December 1770, accompanied by Chipewyan guides led by Matonabbee. They reached the Coppermine River in July 1771, where a violent encounter with Inuit resulted in the Massacre at Bloody Falls. Hearne became the first European to reach the Arctic Ocean overland, confirming the absence of a Northwest Passage at lower latitudes. He discovered copper in the region, but commercial mining was deemed unviable. Hearne returned to Churchill after a journey of approximately 8,000 km, having explored a vast area of northern Canada.In 1774, Hearne established Cumberland House, the Hudson's Bay Company's second inland trading post, in present-day Saskatchewan. He became governor of Fort Prince of Wales in January 1776. In August 1782, he surrendered to a French force without resistance. After returning to England, he found the trade had declined due to disease and starvation among First Nations. Hearne's health deteriorated, and he relinquished command at Churchill in August 1787.In his later years, Hearne assisted naturalists with his experiences and collaborated with William Wales to publish his account, 'A Journey from Prince of Wales's Fort in Hudson's Bay to the Northern Ocean,' which was released posthumously in 1795. Hearne died in November 1792 at the age of 47.Hearne's contributions to exploration were recognized in subsequent years, with his journals and maps validated by later expeditions. His observations of wildlife and the environment were noted by figures such as Charles Darwin. Schools in Canada were named in his honor, reflecting his legacy as an early explorer of northern Canada.

Samuel Hearne

Tecumseh, born on March 9, 1768, was a Shawnee chief and warrior who advocated for resistance against the expansion of the United States into Native American territories. He was born in present-day Ohio during a period of reorganization among the Shawnee people. His father, Puckeshinwau, a Shawnee war chief, was killed in battle against American colonists in 1774. Tecumseh was raised by his older brother, Cheeseekau, who also became a notable war chief but died in 1792. Tecumseh participated in the armed resistance against American encroachment, notably at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794, which resulted in a significant loss of territory for the Shawnees through the Treaty of Greenville in 1795.In 1805, Tecumseh's younger brother, Tenskwatawa, known as the Shawnee Prophet, initiated a religious movement urging Native Americans to reject European influences. Together, they established Prophetstown in Indiana, which became a multi-tribal community. Tecumseh traveled extensively to promote intertribal unity and the idea that Native lands were held in common, warning against further territorial cessions. His efforts alarmed both American leaders and Native leaders who sought to accommodate the United States. In 1811, while Tecumseh was recruiting allies in the South, Tenskwatawa was defeated at the Battle of Tippecanoe, leading to the destruction of Prophetstown.During the War of 1812, Tecumseh allied with the British, contributing to the capture of Detroit in August 1812. He led campaigns against American forces in Ohio and Indiana but faced setbacks, particularly after the U.S. naval victory at Lake Erie in 1813. Tecumseh retreated with British forces into Upper Canada, where he was killed at the Battle of the Thames on October 5, 1813. His death marked the collapse of the confederacy he had worked to build, and the lands he fought to protect were eventually ceded to the United States.Tecumseh's legacy grew posthumously, becoming a folk hero among various groups, including Americans, Indigenous peoples, and Canadians. His life and efforts have been romanticized and mythologized, often overshadowing the historical details of his actions and beliefs. He is remembered as a significant figure in the resistance against U.S. expansion and as a symbol of Native American unity and identity.

Tecumseh

David Thompson, born in 1770 and deceased in 1857, was a Canadian explorer known for his extensive mapping of North America. He played a significant role in the fur trade and was associated with the North West Company. His explorations contributed to the understanding of the geography of Canada and the United States during the early 19th century.David Thompson, an American businessman born in 1798, served as the president of the New York Life Insurance & Trust Company from 1835 until his death in 1871. His leadership helped shape the insurance industry in the United States during that period.In the realm of law, David N. Thompson, born in 1859 and passing in 1945, served as a justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court, contributing to the legal landscape of the state. David R. Thompson, who lived from 1930 to 2011, held the position of U.S. federal judge, influencing federal judicial proceedings.In politics, David Thompson, a Canadian politician born in 1836 and deceased in 1886, was a member of the Canadian House of Commons. David P. Thompson, born in 1834 and passing in 1901, served as the governor of the Idaho Territory and was also the mayor of Portland, Oregon. David Thompson, a Barbadian politician born in 1961 and deceased in 2010, held the office of prime minister of Barbados.In sports, several individuals named David Thompson have made their mark. David Thompson, born in 1954, was an American basketball player. David Thompson, born in 1962, was a former English football player, while another David Thompson, born in 1975, played American football. Additionally, David Thompson, born in 1978, was an Australian rugby league player.David B. Thompson, who lived from 1923 to 2013, was an American prelate of the Roman Catholic Church. David D. Thompson, born in 1963, is a general in the U.S. Space Force. David Thompson, a settler born in 1593, is recognized as the founder of the first European settlement in New Hampshire.Various other individuals named David Thompson have contributed to fields such as entertainment, with figures like David Thompson, the lead singer of the Canadian country band Thunder Road, and Dave Thompson, an English author and comedian. Each of these individuals has left a distinct mark in their respective domains.

David Thompson

William Lyon Mackenzie was born on March 12, 1795, in Dundee, Scotland. He emigrated to York, Upper Canada, in 1820. Mackenzie began his career as a journalist, founding the Colonial Advocate in 1824, a newspaper that criticized the ruling Family Compact of Upper Canada. He was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada in 1827, representing York County, and became a prominent figure among the Reformers. Mackenzie served as Toronto's first mayor in 1834 but declined to run for re-election in 1835.In 1836, after losing his seat in the Legislative Assembly, Mackenzie became convinced that political reform could only be achieved through armed conflict. He led the Upper Canada Rebellion in 1837, which aimed to overthrow the government. The rebellion was quickly suppressed, and Mackenzie fled to the United States, where he sought support for an invasion of Upper Canada. His efforts violated the Neutrality Act, leading to his arrest and an eighteen-month prison sentence. He was pardoned by President Martin Van Buren after serving ten months.Following his release, Mackenzie attempted to establish newspapers in New York but faced financial difficulties. He published documents revealing corruption among New York State officials and wrote several books. In 1849, he received amnesty from the newly formed Province of Canada and returned to Canada, where he served in the legislature for Haldimand County from 1851 to 1858.Mackenzie continued to advocate for reform but faced declining health in the 1860s. He died on August 28, 1861. His funeral was attended by both supporters and opponents, reflecting his complex legacy as a reformer in Canadian history. He is buried in Toronto Necropolis, marked by a prominent Celtic cross.

William Lyon Mackenzie

Sir George-Étienne Cartier, 1st Baronet, was born on September 6, 1814, in Saint-Antoine-sur-Richelieu, Lower Canada. He attended the Petit Séminaire de Montréal from 1824 to 1832 and was called to the bar in 1834, beginning his legal career. Cartier was involved in the railway business, representing the Grand Trunk Railway as a legal client. Influenced by Louis-Joseph Papineau, he joined the Société des Fils de la Liberté and participated in the Lower Canada Rebellion of 1837, specifically at the Battle of Saint-Denis. Following the rebellion, he was exiled to Vermont but returned to Montreal in 1838 to resume his law practice.Upon his return, Cartier became politically active, managing campaigns for Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine. In 1848, he was elected to the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada as a Reformer. During his political career, he introduced a bill for the creation of the Grand Trunk Railway Company in 1852 and was appointed to the cabinet in 1854. From 1857 to 1862, he served as co-premier alongside John A. Macdonald. Cartier was instrumental in forming the Great Coalition with Macdonald and George Brown in 1864, aimed at addressing political instability in the province.Cartier played a significant role in the movement towards Confederation, attending the Charlottetown, Quebec, and London conferences. He was pivotal in securing French-Canadian support for the union and was responsible for legislative reforms that abolished the seigneurial system and established an elected legislative council. Following the creation of the Dominion of Canada in 1867, Cartier became the Minister of Militia and Defence. He was elected to both the federal Parliament and the Quebec Legislative Assembly, representing Montreal East.During his time in Ottawa, Cartier negotiated the purchase of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory and participated in the creation of Manitoba and the entry of British Columbia into Confederation. He introduced a bill for the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1872. In 1871, Cartier began experiencing symptoms of Bright's Disease. After the 1872 election, he traveled to London for treatment but died there on May 20, 1873, at the age of 58. His body was returned to Canada and interred in Cimetière Notre-Dame-des-Neiges in Montreal.Cartier married Hortense Fabre on June 16, 1846, and they had three daughters. Following his death, Lady Cartier received a pension in recognition of her husband's services. She and their surviving daughter lived in Cannes, France, until her death in 1898. Cartier's contributions to Canadian Confederation are significant, and he was honored with a baronetcy in 1868. Numerous places and institutions in Canada are named in his honor, including highways, schools, and a national historic site dedicated to his life and achievements.

George-Étienne Cartier

Sir John Alexander Macdonald was born on 10 January 1815 in Glasgow, Scotland. His family immigrated to Kingston, Upper Canada, in 1820. Macdonald pursued a legal career, becoming a prominent lawyer in Kingston by the mid-1830s. He entered politics in 1844, winning a seat in the legislature of the Province of Canada. By 1857, he had become premier amid a politically unstable environment. In 1864, he joined forces with political rival George Brown to form a Great Coalition aimed at achieving Canadian Confederation.Macdonald played a crucial role in the discussions leading to the British North America Act, which established Canada as a nation on 1 July 1867. He became the first prime minister, serving two non-consecutive terms until his death in 1891. During his first term, he established the North-West Mounted Police and oversaw the annexation of several territories, including British Columbia and Prince Edward Island. However, he resigned in 1873 due to a scandal involving bribery related to the Canadian Pacific Railway. He returned to power in 1878, focusing on building a national government and promoting a protective tariff policy known as the National Policy.Macdonald's administration faced challenges, including the execution of Métis leader Louis Riel in 1885, which alienated many French Canadians. His policies towards Indigenous peoples, including the establishment of the residential school system, drew criticism. Despite these controversies, he remained a significant figure in Canadian history, credited with shaping the nation. Macdonald's tenure as prime minister lasted just under 19 years, making him one of the longest-serving leaders in Canadian history.Macdonald was born into a family that faced financial difficulties, which influenced his early life. He began his legal training in Toronto and quickly established himself in Kingston. His political career began with local elections, and he gained prominence through his legal work and involvement in various organizations. His marriage to Isabella Clark in 1843 was marked by personal challenges, including her prolonged illness and eventual death in 1858.Throughout the 1860s, Macdonald navigated complex political landscapes, advocating for a federal union of British North American colonies. His leadership during the Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences was pivotal in achieving Confederation. Following the establishment of Canada, he worked to expand the country westward, negotiating the acquisition of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory, which included addressing the Red River Rebellion.Macdonald's government implemented significant infrastructure projects, including the Canadian Pacific Railway, which was essential for national unity. His administration also faced economic challenges, including the Panic of 1873, which affected his party's popularity. After a period in opposition, he returned to power in 1878, promoting protectionist policies and the development of Canadian industry.In his later years, Macdonald's health declined, but he continued to influence Canadian politics until his death on 6 June 1891. His legacy is complex, marked by significant achievements in nation-building alongside controversial policies that have drawn criticism in subsequent years. Macdonald's contributions to the formation of Canada and his role in its early governance remain central to Canadian history.

John A. Macdonald

George Loring Brown (1814–1889) was an American landscape painter known for his contributions to the art world. George Douglas Brown (1869–1902) was a Scottish novelist recognized for his literary works. George Williams Brown (1894–1963) served as a Canadian historian and editor. George D. Brown (1898–1968) was an American architect who made notable contributions to architecture. George H. Brown (1913–2001) was a British film producer involved in the film industry. George Mackay Brown (1921–1996) was a Scottish poet, author, and dramatist. An American scholar of Anglo-Saxon literature, George Brown (medievalist) died in 2021. George Brown (1949–2023) was an American drummer known for his work with Kool & the Gang.In business, George Edwards Brown (1780–1848) was a British-born Chilean businessman and politician. George Brown (financier) (1787–1859) was an American banker and railroad founder. George W. Brown (1845–1918) founded the Brown's Business College chain in the United States. George A. Brown (1885–1940) was a Scottish businessman and manager of the Rangoon Times. George R. Brown (1898–1983) was an American construction entrepreneur. George Garvin Brown IV, born around 1969/70, is a Canadian businessman.In law, George F. Brown (c. 1820–1893) served as a justice of the Supreme Court of Mississippi. George H. Brown (1850–1926) was an associate justice of the North Carolina Supreme Court. George M. Brown (1864–1934) was an American attorney and judge in Oregon. George Stewart Brown (1871–1941) served as a judge for the United States Customs Court. George H. Brown Jr. (born 1939) is an associate justice of the Tennessee Supreme Court. Sir George Brown (1942–2007) was the chief justice of Belize from 1990 to 1998.In the military, Sir George Brown (1790–1865) was a British general who served in the Crimean War. George Brown (1835–1913) was an American admiral. George Scratchley Brown (1918–1978) held the position of chief of staff of the U.S. Air Force and chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.In Canadian politics, George Brown (1818–1880) was a Scottish-born journalist and politician. George Stayley Brown (1827–1915) was a ship owner and political figure in Nova Scotia. George W. Brown (1860–1919) served as the Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan. In the United Kingdom, George Brown (Governor of Bombay) was active around 1811–1812, and George Francis Brown (1802–1871) was a civil servant of the East India Company. George Mackenzie Brown (1869–1946) was a member of parliament, while George Brown, Baron George-Brown (1914–1985) served as Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.In the United States, George Brown (1746–1836) was the lieutenant governor of Rhode Island. George Houston Brown (1810–1865) was a New Jersey politician. George William Brown (1812–1890) served as the mayor of Baltimore, Maryland. Other notable figures include George W. Brown (c. 1819–?) from Wisconsin, George Brown (1830–1909), an English-born Wisconsin politician, and George H. Brown (1877–1950), the mayor of Lowell, Massachusetts. George Brown Jr. (1920–1999) was a U.S. representative from California, while George Brown Jr. (born 1948) is a member of the Kentucky House of Representatives. George L. Brown (1926–2006) was a politician in Colorado, and Hank Brown (George Hanks Brown, born 1940) served as a U.S. senator from Colorado.In other countries, George Brown (1870–1932) was a Scottish-born South African trade unionist and politician. George Deas Brown (1922–2014) was an Australian politician, and George Brown (1929–2002) served as an Australian politician and Lord Mayor of Darwin, Northern Territory.In religion, George Brown (c. 1438–1515) was a Scottish bishop. George Brown (died 1628) was an English Benedictine. George Brown (1784–1856) served as the English Roman Catholic Bishop of Liverpool. George S. Brown (1801–1886) was an American Methodist preacher and missionary to Liberia, while George Brown (1835–1917) was an English Methodist missionary to Fiji, Samoa, and New Britain.In science and medicine, George Brown (1650–1730) was a Scottish inventor. Sir George Lindor Brown (1903–1971) was an English physiologist and Secretary of the Royal Society. George Harold Brown (1908–1987) was an American developer of color television. George W. Brown (1917–2005) was an American statistician, game theorist, and computer scientist. G. Spencer-Brown (1923–2016) was an English mathematician, while Sir George Malcolm Brown (1925–1997) was an English geologist. George Brown (born 1930) is an English medical sociologist.In sports, George Brown (coach) (1911–1968) was an American football coach, and George Brown (1923–2008) was an American football player. In association football, several players named George Brown played for various clubs in England and Australia during the 19th and 20th centuries. In baseball, George Brown played in the Negro leagues as an outfielder and pitcher. In cricket, multiple players named George Brown were active in England during the 18th and 19th centuries. Other sports figures include George Daniel Brown (1836–1902), an English golfer, and George Brown (1912–1972), a Canadian ice hockey player.In trade unions, George William Brown (1880–?) was a British trade unionist and politician, while George Brown (1906–1937) was an Irish-born Manchester trade unionist killed in the Spanish Civil War.Other notable individuals include Sir George McLaren Brown (1865–1939), a Canadian railway administrator, and George Brown (executioner), an English executioner active from 1911 to 1919. Igor Gouzenko, who defected to Canada, was also known as George Brown (1919–1982).George Brown College is an applied arts and technology college located in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. George Brown, Class Clown is a book series by author Nancy E. Krulik. The George Brown Darwin Botanic Gardens are located in Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia, and George Brown & Co was a defunct Scottish shipbuilder.

George Brown

Alexander Mackenzie (1764–1820) was a Scottish explorer and a key figure in the North West Company, a fur trading enterprise in North America. He is best known for his significant explorations of the Canadian wilderness. In 1789, Mackenzie became the first recorded person to reach the Pacific Ocean overland from North America, achieving this milestone by navigating the Mackenzie River and crossing the Rocky Mountains. His expeditions contributed to the mapping and understanding of the geography of Canada.Mackenzie was born in Stornoway, Scotland, and emigrated to Canada in 1779. He initially worked in the fur trade, where he gained valuable experience and knowledge of the land and Indigenous peoples. His explorations were motivated by the desire to find a trade route to the Pacific and to expand the fur trade. In 1793, he undertook a journey that took him from the Great Slave Lake to the Pacific coast, which he reached at Bella Coola, British Columbia.Throughout his career, Mackenzie documented his travels and interactions with Indigenous groups, providing insights into their cultures and the natural environment. His writings, including 'Voyages from Montreal,' published in 1801, were among the first detailed accounts of the Canadian interior and contributed to the European understanding of North America.After his explorations, Mackenzie returned to the fur trade and continued to work with the North West Company until his retirement. He passed away in 1820, leaving behind a legacy as one of the early pioneers of Canadian exploration.

Alexander Mackenzie

Big Bear, known as Mistahi-maskwa, was born around 1824 near Jackfish Lake, close to present-day Battleford. He was the son of Muckitoo, also known as Black Powder, a minor chief of a band of Plains Cree-Saulteaux people. Little is documented about his mother. Big Bear's early life was marked by a smallpox outbreak in 1837 that devastated his community, leaving him partially disfigured after he survived the illness. Following his recovery, he spent significant time with his father, which influenced his leadership style. He received his name and power bundle after a vision of the Bear Spirit, a significant figure in Cree spirituality.Big Bear became a respected warrior under his father's leadership and succeeded him as chief in 1864 at the age of 40. His leadership coincided with a period of significant change for the Plains Indigenous Peoples, as the arrival of settlers and the decline of the buffalo population began to threaten their traditional way of life. By the late 1870s, the buffalo had largely disappeared, leading to famine and disease among Indigenous communities. Big Bear resisted signing Treaty 6, believing it would compromise his people's freedom and way of life. He actively campaigned against the treaty, warning other chiefs of its potential consequences.Despite his resistance, Big Bear ultimately signed Treaty 6 on December 8, 1882, under pressure from the dire conditions facing his people. His leadership was further challenged during the North-West Rebellion of 1885, which arose from widespread discontent among Indigenous peoples and Métis due to the Canadian government's policies. Although Big Bear sought a peaceful resolution, his son and other members of his band participated in violent actions, including the Frog Lake Massacre, which led to Big Bear being held responsible for the events.After the rebellion, Big Bear surrendered to the North-West Mounted Police on July 2, 1885. He was tried for treason-felony, despite evidence supporting his innocence, and was sentenced to three years in prison. While incarcerated, he converted to Christianity and fell ill. He was released in February 1887 and returned to the Little Pine reserve, where he died on January 17, 1888, at the age of 62.Big Bear's legacy is significant in Canadian history, as he is remembered for his advocacy for Indigenous rights and his resistance to colonial policies. His life and actions continue to be a point of discussion in the context of reconciliation between Indigenous peoples and the Canadian government.

Big Bear

Sir Sandford Fleming was born on January 7, 1827, in Kirkcaldy, Fife, Scotland, to Andrew and Elizabeth Fleming. At the age of 14, he began an apprenticeship as a surveyor. In 1845, he immigrated to colonial Canada with his older brother David, initially settling in Peterborough, Ontario, in 1847. He qualified as a surveyor in Canada in 1849 and co-founded the Royal Canadian Institute, which was incorporated in 1851. Fleming designed Canada's first postage stamp, the Threepenny Beaver, in 1851. He worked extensively as a surveyor for the Grand Trunk Railway and became Chief Engineer of the Northern Railway of Canada in 1855, advocating for the use of iron bridges for safety.Fleming married Ann Jane Hall in January 1855, and they had nine children. He served as a captain in the 10th Battalion Volunteer Rifles of Canada from 1862 until his retirement in 1865. His career at the Northern Railway was marked by conflict with architect Frederick William Cumberland, leading to his dismissal in 1862. He then became the chief government surveyor of Nova Scotia, completing a railway line from Truro to Pictou by 1867. In 1862, he proposed a transcontinental railway, which became crucial for the Canadian Federation. He was appointed engineer-in-chief of the Intercolonial Railway in 1867, a position he held until 1876, where he insisted on using iron and stone for bridges.Fleming surveyed the route for the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1872, finding a path through the Rocky Mountains. He was dismissed from his position in 1880 but later became a director of the Canadian Pacific Railway. He is credited with proposing a worldwide standard time system after missing a train in Ireland due to a scheduling error. In 1876, he wrote a memoir advocating for a single 24-hour clock and 24 time zones, which were later presented at international conferences. His proposals contributed to the adoption of the Greenwich Meridian as the prime meridian at the International Meridian Conference in 1884.Fleming became Chancellor of Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario, in 1880, a position he held for 35 years. He advocated for a submarine telegraph cable connecting the British Empire, which was completed in 1902. He authored several works on land policy and electoral reform, promoting proportional representation. Fleming was knighted by Queen Victoria in 1897 and was involved in various business ventures, including the Nova Scotia Cotton Manufacturing Company and the Western Canada Cement and Coal Company.Fleming spent his later years between Ottawa and Halifax, where he owned several properties, including 'Winterholme' in Ottawa and 'Blenheim Cottage' in Halifax. He died on July 22, 1915, at his summer cottage in Halifax and was buried in Ottawa's Beechwood Cemetery. His legacy includes the establishment of time zones and contributions to Canadian infrastructure, and he was designated a National Historic Person in 1950.

Sandford Fleming

Sir Henri Charles Wilfrid Laurier was born on November 20, 1841, in Saint-Lin, Canada East. He was the second child of Carolus Laurier and Marcelle Martineau, and he grew up in a politically engaged family. At the age of 11, he left home for New Glasgow to study, where he learned English and became familiar with English Canadian culture. He later attended the Collège de L'Assomption, where he developed an interest in politics and liberalism.Laurier began studying law at McGill University in 1861, where he met his future wife, Zoé Lafontaine. After graduating in 1864, he struggled initially as a lawyer but eventually found success. He became involved in politics, joining the Parti rouge and later the Quebec Liberal Party. In 1871, he was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Quebec, but his tenure was not particularly notable. He transitioned to federal politics, winning a seat in the House of Commons in 1874.As a member of Parliament, Laurier gained prominence through his oratory skills and advocacy for French Canadian rights. He served briefly as minister of inland revenue under Prime Minister Alexander Mackenzie before becoming the leader of the Liberal Party in 1887. After a series of electoral defeats, Laurier capitalized on the Conservative government's mishandling of the Manitoba Schools Question to win the 1896 federal election, becoming Canada's first French Canadian prime minister.During his time in office from 1896 to 1911, Laurier focused on balancing the interests of English and French Canadians. He resolved the Manitoba Schools Question through the Laurier-Greenway Compromise, which allowed for limited Catholic education. He also sent a volunteer force to the Second Boer War and established the Royal Canadian Navy through the Naval Service Act of 1910. His government oversaw significant immigration and territorial expansion, with Alberta and Saskatchewan joining Confederation in 1905.Laurier's support for a reciprocity agreement with the United States became a contentious issue in the 1911 federal election, leading to his defeat by the Conservatives under Robert Borden. Despite this loss, Laurier remained the leader of the Liberal Party and opposed conscription during World War I, which caused divisions within the party. The Laurier Liberals, composed of anti-conscription members, faced significant challenges in the 1917 election, where they were largely reduced to a French Canadian base.Laurier died on February 17, 1919, while still serving as the leader of the Opposition. His funeral was attended by a large crowd, reflecting his enduring popularity. Laurier's legacy includes his efforts to mediate between English and French Canadians, his long tenure in politics, and his significant contributions to Canadian governance and identity.

Wilfrid Laurier

Poundmaker, known in Cree as pîhtokahânapiwiyin, was a Plains Cree chief born around 1842 in Rupert's Land, near present-day Battleford. He was the son of an Assiniboine medicine man and a mixed-blood Cree woman. After the death of his parents, he and his siblings were raised by their mother's Cree community, led by Chief Wuttunee. Poundmaker gained prominence during the negotiations of Treaty 6 in 1876 and later formed his own band, settling on a reserve northwest of Fort Battleford in 1881. He was critical of the Canadian government's failure to uphold treaty promises.Poundmaker's influence grew when he was adopted by Crowfoot, the chief of the Blackfoot First Nation, which strengthened ties between the Blackfoot and Cree peoples. In 1885, a severe shortage of bison led his people to travel south to Battleford. Poundmaker sought to reaffirm his loyalty to the Crown after a murder at the nearby Mosquito Reserve. However, local settlers, fearing for their safety, abandoned the town and sought refuge in Fort Battleford. Poundmaker's party was kept waiting for two days before the Indian agent refused to meet with them. During this time, looting occurred in the abandoned town, with conflicting accounts regarding the identity of the looters.On May 2, 1885, a military force attacked Poundmaker's camp at Cut Knife Hill. After six hours of skirmishing, the troops retreated, and Poundmaker, who had not engaged in the fighting, urged his band not to pursue them, likely preventing further casualties. Following the defeat of Louis Riel at Batoche, Poundmaker surrendered on May 26, 1885. He was convicted of treason based on a letter from Riel and sentenced to three years in Stony Mountain Penitentiary, although he served only seven months due to the influence of Crowfoot. His health deteriorated during imprisonment, and he died from a lung hemorrhage on July 4, 1886, at the age of 44. He was initially buried at Blackfoot Crossing but was reinterred on the Poundmaker Reserve in Saskatchewan in 1967.In May 2019, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau exonerated Poundmaker, acknowledging that he was not a criminal but a leader who sought justice for his people and held the Crown accountable for treaty obligations. The Poundmaker Cree Nation continues to exist near Cut Knife, and the site of the battle has been renamed Poundmaker Hill.

Poundmaker

Sir William Cornelius Van Horne was born on February 3, 1843, in rural Illinois. At the age of eight, he moved with his family to Joliet, Illinois. He was the eldest child of Cornelius Covenhoven Van Horne and Mary Minier Richards. His father, a lawyer, became the first mayor of Joliet after the city received its charter. Van Horne began working on railroads at the age of 14, gaining experience with the Illinois Central Railroad until 1864, and later with the Chicago and Alton Railway as general superintendent from 1878 to 1879.In 1882, Van Horne was appointed general manager of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), becoming vice-president in 1884 and president in 1888. He oversaw the construction of the first Canadian transcontinental railway, which was completed in 1885 in less than half the projected time. Under his leadership, the CPR expanded its services, including the establishment of a telegraph service and an express freight delivery service. He also launched the sea transport division of the CPR, initiating regular service between Vancouver and Hong Kong in 1891. Van Horne played a significant role in the luxury hotel business, contributing to the design of notable hotels such as the Château Frontenac and Chateau Lake Louise.In 1900, he became a prominent member of the syndicate that created the Cuba Railroad Company, which built the first trans-country railway in Cuba. Van Horne was involved in various aspects of Canadian mercantile and financial life and expressed his views on political and economic issues as a publicist.Van Horne married Lucy Hurd in 1867, and they had three children, though their elder son died young. He purchased and enlarged a house in Montreal, known as the Van Horne Mansion, and built a summer estate named 'Covenhoven' on Minister's Island in New Brunswick. He served as a governor of McGill University from 1895 to 1915 and was an accomplished painter, with works displayed in museums. He also had interests in sculpture, architecture, music, and botany.Van Horne died on September 11, 1915, at the Royal Victoria Hospital in Montreal and was buried at Oakwood Cemetery in Joliet, Illinois. He was made an honorary Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George in 1894, although as an American citizen, he was not entitled to the title 'Sir.' His contributions are commemorated through various institutions and locations named in his honor, including the Van Horne Institute in Calgary and schools and streets across Canada. His summer estate was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1996, and he was inducted into the North America Railway Hall of Fame in 1999.

William Cornelius Van Horne

Louis Riel was born on 22 October 1844 in St-Boniface, near the Red River, into a prominent Métis family. His father was of Franco-Chipewyan descent and had gained local respect by challenging the Hudson's Bay Company's trade monopoly. Riel was educated at St. Boniface and later at the Petit Séminaire de Montréal, where he excelled academically but struggled with temper and authority. Following his father's death in 1864, Riel withdrew from his studies and experienced a period of personal turmoil, leading him to believe he was a divinely chosen leader.Riel returned to the Red River Settlement in 1868, where he found tensions rising between the Métis and incoming Anglophone settlers. In 1869, he led the Red River Resistance against the Canadian government, which sought to assert control over the region. Riel established a provisional government and negotiated the terms for Manitoba's entry into Confederation. However, during this period, he ordered the execution of Thomas Scott, a Canadian nationalist, which intensified opposition against him. Following the resistance, Riel fled to the United States to avoid prosecution.While in exile, Riel was elected three times to the House of Commons but never took his seat due to fears for his safety. He married in 1881 and became increasingly convinced of his prophetic role. In 1884, he was called back to Canada by Métis leaders in Saskatchewan to address grievances against the government. This led to the North-West Rebellion of 1885, where Riel again took a leadership role. After initial successes, his forces were defeated at the Battle of Batoche, and Riel was captured.Riel's trial for high treason began in July 1885 in Regina, where he defended his actions and the rights of the Métis. Despite a jury recommendation for mercy, he was sentenced to death. Riel was executed by hanging on 16 November 1885. His execution polarized Canadian society, with many French Canadians viewing him as a martyr for Métis rights, while others in English Canada saw him as a traitor. The aftermath of his execution deepened divisions in Canada, particularly along ethnic and religious lines, and the Métis faced increasing marginalization in the Prairie provinces.Riel's legacy has been the subject of extensive historical debate, with interpretations ranging from viewing him as a dangerous rebel to a heroic defender of Métis rights. His life and actions have had a lasting impact on Canadian history, particularly in discussions surrounding Indigenous rights and the relationship between French and English Canadians.

Louis Riel

Major-General Sir Samuel Benfield Steele (5 January 1848 – 30 January 1919) was a Canadian soldier and policeman. Born in Medonte Township, Province of Canada, he was the son of Royal Navy Captain Elmes Yelverton Steele and Anne Macdonald. Steele was educated at home and at the Royal Military College of Canada. After becoming orphaned at 13, he lived with his half-brother, John Steele.Steele began his military career in 1866, joining the Canadian Militia during the Fenian raids. He served in the 35th Simcoe Battalion of Infantry and later the 31st Grey Battalion of Infantry. He participated in the Red River Expedition in 1870 but arrived after the Métis surrender. In 1871, he joined the Permanent Force artillery, Canada’s first regular army unit, and spent several years at Fort Henry in Kingston, Ontario, as an instructor.In 1873, Steele became the third officer sworn into the North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) as a staff constable. He participated in the 1874 March West and was responsible for drilling new recruits. By 1878, he commanded Fort Qu'Appelle. In 1877, he attempted to persuade Sitting Bull to return to the United States after the latter's victory at the Little Bighorn. During the North-West Rebellion, Steele led a small force against Big Bear's warriors, achieving a decisive victory at Loon Lake. He was promoted to superintendent after the rebellion and established an NWMP station in British Columbia, later named Fort Steele.In 1887, Steele resolved tensions with the Ktunaxa nation in southeastern British Columbia through diplomacy. He commanded Fort Macleod from 1888 and married Marie-Elizabeth de Lotbinière-Harwood in 1890, with whom he had three children. The Klondike Gold Rush in the late 1890s brought new responsibilities, and in January 1898, he became the commissioner of the NWMP in the Yukon. He enforced strict regulations to maintain order among prospectors, ensuring the NWMP's reputation and survival.In early 1900, Steele was appointed the first commanding officer of Strathcona's Horse, a cavalry unit raised for the Second Boer War. He commanded the unit in South Africa, where he faced moral dilemmas regarding British military tactics. After the war, he returned to Canada and later commanded 'B' Division of the South African Constabulary until 1906. He held various military commands in Canada until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, when he was initially rejected for active duty due to age but later served in an administrative role.Steele was knighted on 1 January 1918 and retired on 15 July 1918. He died during the 1918 flu pandemic and was interred at the Cathedral of St. John Cemetery in Winnipeg. His legacy includes Mount Steele, named in his honor, and Steele Barracks at CFB Edmonton. His personal papers were repatriated to Canada in 2008, believed to contain significant historical insights.

Sam Steele

Emily Murphy, born Emily Gowan Ferguson on 14 March 1868 in Cookstown, Ontario, was a Canadian women's rights activist and author. She became the first female magistrate in Canada in 1916 and the fifth in the British Empire. Murphy is recognized for her significant contributions to Canadian feminism, particularly regarding the legal status of women as 'qualified persons' to serve in the Senate.Murphy was part of a group known as 'The Famous Five,' which included Henrietta Muir Edwards, Nellie McClung, Louise McKinney, and Irene Parlby. In 1927, they initiated the 'Persons Case,' arguing that women should be considered 'qualified persons' under Canadian law. The Supreme Court of Canada initially ruled against them, but upon appeal to the Judicial Committee of the British Privy Council, the women won their case, establishing a legal precedent for women's rights in Canada.Murphy was born to Isaac Ferguson, a businessman, and Emily Gowan. She was influenced by her family's political background, with relatives holding significant positions in law and politics. She received a formal education at Bishop Strachan School in Toronto and married Arthur Murphy in 1887, with whom she had four daughters. The family moved to Alberta in 1907 after living in Manitoba.Murphy's activism began in earnest when she became aware of the plight of women in Alberta, particularly regarding property rights. Motivated by a case of a woman left destitute after her husband sold their farm, Murphy campaigned for the Dower Act, which was passed in 1916, granting married women legal rights to one-third of their husband's property.Her success with the Dower Act led to her appointment as a magistrate, where she faced challenges regarding her legal status as a woman. In 1917, she began advocating for women to be recognized as 'persons' under the British North America Act of 1867. Despite facing legal challenges, including a rejection of her position as a judge based on the argument that women were not legally persons, she continued her efforts.In 1919, Murphy presided over a conference that called for the appointment of a female senator. She and her colleagues submitted a petition to the federal government, which led to the Supreme Court case in 1928. The court ruled against them, but the Privy Council later reversed this decision in 1929, affirming that women were indeed persons eligible for Senate appointments. Despite this victory, Murphy never served in the Senate due to political circumstances.Murphy's later work has been criticized for her support of the Sexual Sterilization Act of Alberta and her views on race and immigration, particularly regarding drug use. In her book, The Black Candle, she expressed concerns about drug addiction and its association with immigrant communities, which contributed to a broader societal panic about drugs in Canada.Murphy's legacy is complex, as her contributions to women's rights are weighed against her controversial views on race and eugenics. She was recognized as a Person of National Historic Significance in 1958, and her home in Edmonton is now a historic site. The Famous Five are commemorated in Canadian history for their role in advancing women's rights, and their efforts are acknowledged in various memorials, including a plaque in the Senate Chamber.

Emily Murphy

Richard Bedford Bennett, 1st Viscount Bennett, was born on July 3, 1870, in Hopewell Hill, New Brunswick. He was the eldest of six children in a family with a history of shipbuilding, which declined due to changes in technology. Bennett's early life was influenced by his mother, a Wesleyan Methodist, and he developed a strong work ethic and a love for the British Empire. He attended local schools and later trained as a teacher before enrolling at Dalhousie University, where he graduated with a law degree in 1893.In 1897, Bennett moved to Calgary, where he partnered with James Lougheed to establish a successful law firm. His wealth grew through various investments, including land and oil companies. He entered politics in 1898, serving in the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories and later as the first leader of the Alberta Conservative Party. After a brief stint as minister of justice in 1921, he returned to the House of Commons in 1925 and became leader of the Conservative Party in 1927.Bennett became prime minister following the 1930 election, where the Conservatives won a majority. His tenure was dominated by the Great Depression, during which he initially adhered to laissez-faire economic policies that proved ineffective. As the crisis deepened, he shifted towards more interventionist measures, attempting to implement a Canadian version of the New Deal. His government established the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission and the Bank of Canada, but faced criticism for its handling of the economic situation.In the 1935 election, Bennett's government suffered a significant defeat, leading to his resignation as Conservative leader in 1938. He moved to England, where he was elevated to the peerage as Viscount Bennett in 1941, becoming the only former Canadian prime minister to receive such an honor. He remained active in the House of Lords and various organizations until his death on June 26, 1947, in Mickleham, England. Bennett is buried there, making him the only deceased former Canadian prime minister not interred in Canada.

R. B. Bennett

Nellie Letitia McClung, born on 20 October 1873 in Chatsworth, Ontario, was the youngest of six children in the Mooney family. Her father, John Mooney, owned 60 hectares of land, but the poor soil led to financial struggles. In 1880, the family relocated to the Souris River valley, west of Winnipeg. McClung graduated from the Manitoba Normal School at sixteen and began teaching in Hazel, Manitoba, earning $40 a month. After eighteen months, she moved to Manitou, where she boarded with the McClung family and became influenced by Annie E. McClung, a suffragist. Nellie married Robert Wesley McClung in August 1896, and they had five children between 1897 and 1911. She participated in various local organizations, including the Woman's Christian Temperance Union and the Methodist Ladies' Aid.In 1905, the McClung family faced financial difficulties when Wesley sold his pharmacy. To support the family, Nellie began writing short stories for magazines. Her first novel, Sowing Seeds in Danny, was published in 1908 and became a bestseller, selling 100,000 copies and earning her $25,000. This success led to public speaking engagements across Manitoba and Saskatchewan. Her second book, A Second Chance, was published in 1910, and she toured Ontario, gaining recognition for her speaking abilities. Throughout the 1910s, she published three more books, including In Times Like These, which addressed first-wave feminism. McClung moved to Winnipeg in 1911, where she co-founded the Women's Political Equality League in 1912, advocating for women's suffrage.In 1914, the league petitioned Manitoba's Premier Rodmond Roblin for women's voting rights, which was denied. In response, they staged a 'Mock Parliament' to highlight their cause. McClung campaigned for the Manitoba Liberal Party in the 1914 and 1915 elections. After moving to Edmonton, Alberta, the Liberal Party won the 1915 election, and Manitoba granted women the right to vote in January 1916. McClung continued her advocacy in Alberta, focusing on temperance, healthcare, and women's rights. She was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Alberta in 1921, serving until 1926, and was one of only two women elected.In 1927, McClung and four other women, known as the Famous Five, petitioned to clarify the term 'persons' in the British North America Act of 1867, seeking to allow women to serve in the Senate. The Supreme Court of Canada ruled against them, but the decision was appealed to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, which overturned the ruling in 1929, leading to the appointment of the first woman to the Senate in 1930. McClung was appointed to the board of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation in 1936, becoming the first woman to hold that position. In 1938, she served as a delegate to the League of Nations in Geneva.McClung moved to Victoria, British Columbia, in 1933, where she lived until her death on 1 September 1951. Her health declined in the late 1930s, and she suffered a heart attack in 1940. She continued to contribute to the CBC board through correspondence until her resignation in 1942. Her second autobiography, The Stream Runs Fast, was published in 1945. McClung's contributions to Canadian society were recognized posthumously, and she was named a Person of National Historic Significance in 1954. Her legacy includes her involvement in the Persons Case and her advocacy for women's rights in Canada.

Nellie McClung

William Lyon Mackenzie King was born on December 17, 1874, in Berlin, Ontario, to John King and Isabel Grace Mackenzie. He was the grandson of William Lyon Mackenzie, a notable figure in Canadian history. King pursued higher education at the University of Toronto, where he earned a BA, LLB, and MA, and later obtained a PhD from Harvard University, making him the first Canadian prime minister to hold such a degree. His early career included serving as the deputy minister of the newly established Department of Labour in 1900 and later as the first federal minister of labour in 1909 under Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier.After losing his parliamentary seat in the 1911 election, King worked with the Rockefeller Foundation until 1918. He returned to politics in 1919, becoming the leader of the Liberal Party after Laurier's death. King unified the party, which had been divided by the Conscription Crisis, and led the Liberals to victory in the 1921 federal election, establishing a post-war agenda that included lowering taxes and tariffs. He asserted Canadian autonomy in foreign affairs, notably during the Chanak Crisis and through the negotiation of the Halibut Treaty with the United States.King's first term as prime minister lasted from 1921 to 1926. His government faced challenges, including a corruption scandal related to the Beauharnois Canal project. In 1926, a constitutional crisis known as the King-Byng affair occurred when Governor General Lord Byng refused King's request to dissolve Parliament. King subsequently won the election that followed, reinforcing his position. He continued to promote Canadian independence in foreign policy and introduced social programs, including old-age pensions.After a defeat in the 1930 election, King served as the leader of the opposition until the Liberals returned to power in 1935 with a landslide victory. His second term saw the introduction of significant economic reforms, including the Reciprocal Trade Agreement with the United States and the establishment of the Bank of Canada. King also oversaw Canada's involvement in World War II, mobilizing troops and implementing unemployment insurance. His government faced criticism for the internment of Japanese Canadians during the war.King's leadership during the war solidified his reputation, and he won another election in 1940. He continued to navigate the complexities of wartime politics, balancing the demands of different regions and political factions. After the war, King called a federal election in 1945, resulting in a minority government. He played a key role in the founding of the United Nations and worked towards Canada's entry into the organization.King retired from politics in late 1948 and passed away on July 22, 1950. He remains the longest-serving prime minister in Canadian history, with a total of 21 years and 154 days in office. His legacy includes significant contributions to the development of Canada's welfare state and its position as an autonomous nation within the British Commonwealth.

William Lyon Mackenzie King

James Shaver Charleston Woodsworth was born on July 29, 1874, in Etobicoke, Ontario, to a Methodist minister and his wife. The family moved to Brandon, Manitoba, in 1882, where Woodsworth's father became a Superintendent of Methodist Missions. Woodsworth was ordained as a Methodist minister in 1896 and served as a circuit preacher in Manitoba before studying at Victoria College in Toronto and Oxford University. His time at Oxford sparked his interest in social welfare, which he pursued upon returning to Canada as a minister at Grace Church in Winnipeg in 1902.Woodsworth became increasingly concerned with social issues and the plight of the poor and immigrants. He served as the superintendent of the All People's Mission in Winnipeg, where he advocated for social welfare initiatives, including compulsory education and juvenile courts. His writings, such as 'Strangers Within Our Gates' (1909) and 'My Neighbour' (1911), addressed social inequalities and immigration issues, although they also reflected eugenic views on race.In 1913, Woodsworth became the Secretary of the Canadian Welfare League, traveling across the Canadian prairies to investigate social conditions. His opposition to conscription during World War I led to his dismissal from the Bureau of Social Research and his resignation from the Church in 1918 due to its support of the war. He then worked as a stevedore in British Columbia and became involved in the labour movement, helping to organize the Federated Labour Party of British Columbia.Woodsworth gained prominence during the Winnipeg General Strike in 1919, where he protested against police violence and was briefly imprisoned for his activism. He was elected to the House of Commons in 1921 as a member of the Independent Labour Party (ILP) and became a key figure in Canadian socialist politics. He advocated for unemployment insurance and constitutional reform, and he played a significant role in the founding of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in 1932, serving as its first leader.Under Woodsworth's leadership, the CCF became the official opposition in British Columbia and Saskatchewan, and it gained representation in the House of Commons. Woodsworth's vision for a distinct Canadian socialism emphasized solving social issues through democratic means rather than following foreign models. He was a vocal opponent of World War II, arguing that war perpetuated social injustices.Woodsworth was re-elected in 1940 but suffered a stroke later that year, leading to a decline in his health. He died on March 21, 1942, in Vancouver, British Columbia. His contributions to Canadian social policy, particularly in areas such as social assistance and healthcare, have had a lasting impact. Woodsworth's legacy is commemorated through various institutions and memorials, including Woodsworth College at the University of Toronto and several schools named in his honor.

J. S. Woodsworth

General Sir Arthur William Currie, born on 5 December 1875, was a prominent officer in the Canadian Army during World War I. He began his military career in 1897 as a part-time gunner in the Canadian militia and advanced through the ranks to become the first Canadian commander of the Canadian Corps. Currie's rise was marked by his ability to adapt tactics to the challenges of trench warfare, employing set piece operations and bite-and-hold strategies.Currie was born in Napperton, Ontario, to William Garner Curry and Jane Patterson. He was the third of eight children and grew up on his grandparents' farm. His grandparents emigrated from Ireland in 1838, converting from Catholicism and Anglicanism to Methodism, which led to the family name change from Corrigan to Curry. Arthur modified the spelling to Currie in 1897. He received his education in local schools and the Strathroy District Collegiate Institute, where he excelled in literature. After his father's death when Currie was fifteen, he could not pursue a career in law or medicine and instead trained as a teacher. He eventually moved to British Columbia, where he worked as a teacher and later as an insurance salesman and real estate speculator.Currie's military career began when he joined the 5th (British Columbia) Field Artillery Regiment. He quickly rose through the ranks, becoming an officer in 1900, captain in 1901, and major in 1906. In 1909, he became an artillery regimental commander. In 1913, he accepted command of the newly formed 50th Regiment Gordon Highlanders of Canada. Facing financial difficulties due to a real estate crash, Currie embezzled funds intended for regimental uniforms to pay off his debts. When World War I began, he was appointed commander of the 2nd Canadian Brigade by Minister of Militia Sam Hughes.Currie's leadership was tested during the Second Battle of Ypres in 1915, where he successfully organized a defense against a German gas attack. His performance led to his promotion to major-general and commander of the 1st Canadian Division. After the Battle of Vimy Ridge, he was promoted to lieutenant-general and took command of the Canadian Corps. Following the war, he returned to Canada, where he was promoted to general and became Inspector General of the Canadian Army.In 1920, Currie was appointed principal and vice-chancellor of McGill University, despite having only a high school diploma. He successfully led fundraising efforts to support the university and implemented significant administrative changes. Currie's tenure saw the establishment of new faculties and programs, and he became a respected figure in Canadian education.Currie's military career was marked by numerous honors, including being named a Companion of the Order of the Bath and receiving various foreign awards. He was involved in significant battles, including the Battle of Arras and the Battle of Passchendaele, where he employed innovative tactics that minimized casualties. His leadership during the Hundred Days Offensive in 1918 was crucial in the final stages of the war.Currie faced personal challenges, including financial difficulties and health issues. He suffered a stroke in 1934 and passed away on 30 November 1933. His funeral was one of the largest in Canadian history, attended by thousands. Currie's legacy includes numerous honors, memorials, and institutions named in his memory, reflecting his contributions to both military history and education in Canada.

Arthur Currie

Louis Stephen St. Laurent was born on February 1, 1882, in Compton, Quebec, to Jean-Baptiste-Moïse Saint-Laurent and Mary Anne Broderick. He was the eldest of seven children in a bilingual household. St. Laurent pursued higher education, earning a Bachelor of Arts from Séminaire Saint-Charles-Borromée in 1902 and a law degree from Université Laval in 1905. He declined a Rhodes Scholarship and married Jeanne Renault in 1908, with whom he had five children.St. Laurent began his legal career in 1905, becoming a respected lawyer and professor of law at Université Laval in 1914. He gained attention for his unconventional courtroom tactics and was involved in significant legal cases, including a notable case against Canadian Pacific in 1912. He opened his own law office in 1923 and advocated for minority rights, particularly for Jewish representation in school boards, although his efforts were only partially successful. Despite his Liberal affiliations, he remained largely focused on his legal career until he entered politics in 1941.St. Laurent was appointed Minister of Justice in December 1941 under Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King. He won a by-election in Quebec East in 1942 and supported conscription during World War II, helping to maintain party unity. He represented Canada at the 1945 San Francisco Conference, contributing to the establishment of the United Nations. In 1946, he became Secretary of State for External Affairs, advocating for an independent Canadian foreign policy and supporting the creation of NATO in 1949.In 1948, St. Laurent succeeded King as leader of the Liberal Party and became Prime Minister on November 15. His government initiated major infrastructure projects, including the Trans-Canada Highway and the St. Lawrence Seaway, and expanded social welfare programs, introducing family allowances and hospital insurance. He oversaw Canada's involvement in the Korean War and the resolution of the Suez Crisis through UN peacekeeping efforts, which earned Lester B. Pearson the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957.St. Laurent's government won significant victories in the 1949 and 1953 federal elections, but his administration faced criticism for perceived arrogance, particularly during the 1956 Pipeline Debate. This controversy contributed to the Liberal Party's defeat in the 1957 election, where they lost to John Diefenbaker's Progressive Conservatives despite winning the popular vote. St. Laurent resigned on June 21, 1957, ending a lengthy period of Liberal governance.After retiring from politics, St. Laurent returned to his law practice and was appointed a Companion of the Order of Canada in 1967. He died on July 25, 1973, in Quebec City at the age of 91. His legacy includes significant contributions to Canadian infrastructure, social policy, and international relations, and he is remembered as a prominent figure in Canada's post-war history.

Louis St. Laurent

General Andrew George Latta McNaughton was born on 25 February 1887 in Moosomin, District of Assiniboia, North-West Territories, now part of Saskatchewan. His parents were Scottish immigrants, and he grew up on a farm, which instilled in him a strong work ethic. McNaughton attended Bishop's College School and later McGill University, where he excelled in physics and engineering, studying under physicist Ernest Rutherford. He earned a B.A. in 1910 and an MSc in Electrical Engineering in 1912, subsequently becoming a professor at McGill.McNaughton joined the Canadian Militia in 1909 and was deployed to Europe with the Canadian Expeditionary Force at the outbreak of the First World War. He arrived in France in February 1915 and quickly rose through the ranks, becoming a lieutenant colonel in March 1916. He played a significant role in the Canadian Corps, particularly noted for his contributions to artillery tactics during the Battle of Vimy Ridge in April 1917, where his innovations in artillery targeting were crucial to the Canadian success. By the war's end, he had been promoted to brigadier general and was recognized as one of the most capable artillery officers of the conflict.After the war, McNaughton continued his military career, becoming Chief of the General Staff in 1929. He focused on modernizing the Canadian Army and integrating returning soldiers into the militia. He was involved in the Otter Committee, which aimed to reorganize the military structure post-war. McNaughton advocated for a citizen militia and emphasized the importance of education and training for military efficiency. His scientific background influenced his approach to military organization and strategy.During the Second World War, McNaughton commanded the 1st Canadian Infantry Division and later the Canadian Corps. He was known for his care for soldiers and was a prominent figure in the media. His opposition to conscription aligned with Prime Minister Mackenzie King's policies, which aimed to maintain an all-volunteer force. However, as the war progressed and casualties mounted, McNaughton faced pressure to support conscription, leading to tensions with the government.In 1943, McNaughton was relieved of command after a series of military exercises raised concerns about his operational effectiveness. He was appointed Minister of National Defence later that year, where he struggled with the conscription issue and faced public backlash. His attempts to rally support for a volunteer army were met with resistance, and he ultimately had to call for conscription, which led to further controversy.McNaughton ran for a seat in the House of Commons in 1945 but was defeated, partly due to the political climate surrounding his wife's Catholicism and the conscription issue. He resigned as Defence Minister later that year. After the war, he served in various diplomatic roles, including as Canada's Ambassador to the United Nations. McNaughton passed away on 11 July 1966, leaving a complex legacy as a military leader and public figure in Canada.

Andrew McNaughton

Agnes Campbell Macphail was born on March 24, 1890, in Proton Township, Grey County, Ontario, to Dougald McPhail and Henrietta Campbell. She initially bore the surname 'McPhail' but later adopted the 'Macphail' spelling after discovering her family's heritage during a trip to Scotland. Raised in the Methodist Church, she converted to the Reorganized Latter Day Saint Church as a teenager and later joined the United Church of Canada. Macphail attended Owen Sound Collegiate and Vocational Institute for one year before transferring to Stratford Normal School, where she graduated in 1910 with a second-class teacher's certificate. She taught in various rural Ontario schools, becoming politically active while working in Sharon, where she joined the United Farmers of Ontario and its women's organization.Macphail entered federal politics after the Conservative government amended the Elections Act in 1919. She was elected to the House of Commons as a member of the Progressive Party for Grey Southeast in the 1921 federal election, becoming the first woman to hold this position in Canada. She was re-elected in 1925, 1926, and 1930. Macphail was known for her opposition to the Royal Military College of Canada and her involvement in the socialist Ginger Group, which later formed the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF). She served as the first president of the Ontario CCF in 1932 but left the party in 1934 due to concerns over Communist influence. Despite this, she maintained close ties with CCF MPs and continued to advocate for rural issues, prison reform, and women's rights.In the 1935 federal election, Macphail was elected as a United Farmers of Ontario–Labour MP for the newly created Grey—Bruce riding. She was a strong advocate for pensions for seniors and workers' rights and became the first Canadian woman delegate to the League of Nations. Although a pacifist, she voted for Canada to enter World War II. After losing her seat in the 1940 election, she attempted to fill a vacancy in Saskatoon City but was defeated in a by-election in 1943.Macphail transitioned to provincial politics, winning a seat in the Legislative Assembly of Ontario in the 1943 election as a member of the Ontario CCF, becoming one of the first women elected to the Ontario Legislature. She was re-elected in 1948 and was instrumental in passing Ontario's first equal-pay legislation in 1951. However, she lost her seat later that year and struggled to support herself through journalism and public speaking. Macphail remained committed to increasing women's representation in politics throughout her life. She never married and passed away on February 13, 1954, in Toronto, shortly before she was to be appointed to the Senate of Canada. She is buried in Priceville, Ontario, alongside her family.

Agnes Macphail

Joseph Philippe Pierre Yves Elliott Trudeau was born on October 18, 1919, in Outremont, Quebec. He was the son of Charles-Émile Trudeau, a businessman, and Grace Elliott, of mixed Scottish and French-Canadian descent. Trudeau had two siblings and was raised in a financially secure environment. He attended the Académie Querbes and later the Jesuit Collège Jean-de-Brébeuf, where he excelled academically and became fluent in both French and English.Trudeau pursued a law degree at the Université de Montréal, graduating in 1943. He joined the Canadian Officers' Training Corps during World War II but opposed conscription. After the war, he studied at Harvard University and the London School of Economics, where he developed his political and economic views. His travels through Europe and Asia further shaped his perspectives on nationalism and governance.In the 1950s, Trudeau emerged as a prominent figure in Quebec politics, opposing the conservative Union Nationale government. He became an associate professor of law at the Université de Montréal and co-founded the dissident journal Cité Libre. In 1965, he joined the Liberal Party, believing it was better positioned to achieve power than the New Democratic Party (NDP). He was elected to the House of Commons and quickly appointed as parliamentary secretary to Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson.Trudeau was appointed Minister of Justice in 1967, where he introduced significant reforms, including the decriminalization of homosexuality and liberalization of divorce and abortion laws. His charismatic personality led to a phenomenon known as 'Trudeaumania,' which helped him win the Liberal leadership in 1968. He became the 15th Prime Minister of Canada on April 20, 1968, and won elections in 1968, 1972, and 1974, serving until 1979 when he lost to the Progressive Conservatives.During his first term, Trudeau implemented policies promoting official bilingualism and multiculturalism. He invoked the War Measures Act during the October Crisis of 1970 to address the actions of the Front de libération du Québec (FLQ). His government also introduced the capital gains tax and expanded welfare programs, although it faced criticism for rising deficits and perceived economic mismanagement.Trudeau returned to power in 1980, winning a fourth election shortly after the Quebec sovereignty referendum, which he successfully campaigned against. His second term saw the introduction of the National Energy Program, which was controversial in Western Canada. In 1982, he patriated the Canadian Constitution and established the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, enhancing individual rights and freedoms in Canada.Trudeau retired from politics in 1984, having served a total of 15 years and 164 days as Prime Minister, making him one of Canada's longest-serving leaders. After leaving office, he practiced law and remained active in public discourse, opposing constitutional accords that he believed would weaken federalism. Trudeau passed away on September 28, 2000, at the age of 80, and his legacy continues to influence Canadian politics and society.

Pierre Trudeau

René Lévesque was born on August 24, 1922, in Campbellton, New Brunswick, and raised in New Carlisle, Quebec. He was the son of Diane and Dominic Lévesque, a lawyer, and had three siblings. Lévesque's father passed away when he was 14 years old. He attended Jesuit schools and studied law at Université Laval but left without completing his degree in 1943. He began his career in journalism, working at various radio stations and serving as a war correspondent during World War II and the Korean War.In 1960, Lévesque entered politics as a member of the Liberal Party, winning a seat in the Legislative Assembly of Quebec. He served in several ministerial roles, including minister of hydroelectric resources, where he played a key role in the nationalization of hydroelectric companies during the Quiet Revolution. After the Liberals lost the 1966 election, Lévesque began advocating for Quebec's independence, leading to his departure from the Liberal Party and the founding of the Mouvement Souveraineté-Association (MSA).The MSA merged with the Ralliement National in 1968 to form the Parti Québécois (PQ), which aimed to achieve Quebec sovereignty through democratic means. The PQ gained significant support in the 1970 election, although it did not win a majority. Lévesque's leadership faced challenges, but he remained a prominent figure in Quebec politics. In the 1976 election, the PQ won a landslide victory, and Lévesque became the premier of Quebec.As premier, Lévesque's government introduced the Quebec Charter of the French Language, which aimed to promote French as the primary language in Quebec. He also oversaw the completion of the nationalization of hydroelectricity and implemented various social reforms. In 1980, Lévesque held a referendum on Quebec sovereignty, which resulted in a defeat for the pro-sovereignty side. Despite this setback, he led the PQ to victory in the 1981 election, increasing its majority in the National Assembly.Lévesque's second term focused on the patriation of the Canadian constitution, which faced criticism from some Quebecers. He also dealt with economic challenges, including a recession that led to budget cuts, angering labor unions. In 1985, Lévesque resigned as leader of the PQ and as premier, advocating for a more conciliatory approach towards the federal government.On November 1, 1987, Lévesque died of a heart attack in Montreal. His funeral was attended by over 100,000 people, reflecting his significant impact on Quebec society. Lévesque is remembered as a key figure in the Quebec nationalist movement and is often regarded as the father of modern Quebec nationalism. His legacy includes the promotion of the French language, social reforms, and the establishment of the Parti Québécois as a major political force in Quebec.

René Lévesque

Alexander Henry 'The Elder' (August 1739 – 4 April 1824) was an American-born explorer, author, and merchant who settled in Quebec after the Conquest of New France. He became a partner in the North West Company and was a founding member and vice-chairman of the Beaver Club. From 1763 to 1764, he lived and hunted with Wawatam of the Ojibwe, who adopted him as a brother. Henry documented his experiences and explorations in his book, 'Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories between the years 1760 and 1776,' published in New York City in 1809. This work is recognized for its detailed descriptions of Native Indian life during that period.Born in New Brunswick, New Jersey, Henry was the eldest son of John Henry, a merchant of English descent. He received a good education and began working as a merchant in Albany, New York, at the age of twenty. During the French and Indian War, he supplied the British army and, after the British victory at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in 1760, he was responsible for transporting supplies to Montreal. He was the first British subject known to have visited the area of Milwaukee in 1760.In early 1761, Henry met fur trader Jean-Baptiste Leduc, who introduced him to the trading opportunities at Michilimackinac and Lake Superior. He secured a fur trade pass and set out for Fort Michilimackinac, disguising himself as a voyageur to avoid conflict with the Ojibwe, who were loyal to the French. Upon arrival, he was initially surrounded by Ojibwe warriors but managed to gain their trust through diplomacy. That winter, Wawatam adopted him, and Henry developed a deep respect for the Ojibwe people.Henry's trading activities flourished as he built relationships with both the French and Native Americans. However, during the Pontiac's Rebellion, he was captured by the Ojibwe but was saved by Wawatam, who hid him from danger. Henry lived with Wawatam's family for nearly a year, gaining valuable insights into Native American life. After the rebellion, he returned to Michilimackinac and resumed trading.In 1765, Henry obtained a license to trade in the Lake Superior region and formed a partnership with Cadot, monopolizing the trade there. He also partnered with Sir William Johnson to mine silver in the area, but the venture proved unprofitable. In 1775, he explored territories northwest of Lake Superior, challenging the Hudson's Bay Company and establishing trading posts.Henry traveled to England in 1776 to propose a plan to the Hudson's Bay Company and was received at the French Court by Marie Antoinette. He returned to North America in 1777, continuing his trading activities and maintaining connections with influential figures like John Jacob Astor. In the 1780s, he encouraged Astor to enter the fur trade and assisted in organizing shipments of furs to China.Settling in Montreal in 1781, Henry became a prominent merchant while remaining involved in the fur trade. He was a founding member of the Beaver Club and engaged in land speculation, including the unsuccessful Cuyahoga Purchase. In 1792, he obtained a share in the North West Company but later sold his interest while continuing to trade.Henry faced financial difficulties due to losses from captured shipments and became a commission merchant and auctioneer. Despite health issues, he remained active in Montreal's mercantile society, serving as a justice of the peace and participating in community events. He published his memoirs in 1809, which became a classic account of his experiences.Henry had a 'country wife' and fathered several children, including a daughter. He married Julia Calcutt Kittson in 1785, and they had several children together. He died at the age of 85 in Montreal, remembered for his contributions to the fur trade and his role in the development of Montreal as a business center.