History of Taiwan

In the Late Pleistocene, sea levels were significantly lower, which exposed the floor of the Taiwan Strait as a land bridge.^[4] Significant vertebrate fossils were uncovered between Taiwan and the Penghu Islands, notably a jawbone belonging to an unidentified species of the Homo genus, estimated to be between 450,000 and 190,000 years old.^[5] Modern human evidence on Taiwan dates back to between 20,000 and 30,000 years ago,^[1] with the oldest artifacts being chipped-pebble tools from the Paleolithic Changbin culture. This culture existed up to 5,000 years ago,^[6] as evidenced by sites at Eluanbi. Additionally, sediment analysis from Sun Moon Lake indicates slash-and-burn agriculture began 11,000 years ago, ceasing 4,200 years ago with the rise of rice cultivation.^[7] As the Holocene commenced 10,000 years ago, sea levels rose, forming the Taiwan Strait and isolating Taiwan from the mainland.^[4]

Approximately in 3,000 BCE, the Neolithic Dapenkeng culture emerged, spreading swiftly around Taiwan's coast. Distinguished by corded-ware pottery and polished stone tools, this culture cultivated rice and millet but heavily depended on marine resources. It is widely believed that the Dapenkeng culture was introduced to Taiwan by ancestors of the current Taiwanese aborigines, who spoke early Austronesian languages.^[2] Descendants of these people migrated from Taiwan to various regions in Southeast Asia, the Pacific, and the Indian Oceans. Notably, the Malayo-Polynesian languages, now spoken across vast territories, form just one branch of the Austronesian family, with the remaining branches exclusive to Taiwan.^[8] Furthermore, trade with the Philippine archipelago commenced from the early 2nd millennium BCE, incorporating the use of Taiwanese jade in the Philippine jade culture.^[9] Several cultures succeeded the Dapenkeng, with the introduction of iron in cultures like the Niaosung,^[10] and by around 400 CE, local bloomeries produced wrought iron, a technology possibly acquired from the Philippines.^[11]

During the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), Han Chinese began exploring Taiwan.^[12] The Yuan emperor, Kublai Khan, dispatched officials to the Ryukyu Kingdom in 1292 to assert Yuan's dominance, but they mistakenly landed in Taiwan. After a conflict resulting in the death of three soldiers, they promptly returned to Quanzhou, China. Wang Dayuan visited Taiwan in 1349, observing that its inhabitants had distinct customs from those in Penghu. He did not mention other Chinese settlers but highlighted the varied lifestyles in regions named Liuqiu and Pisheye.^[13] The discovery of Chuhou pottery from Zhejiang indicates Chinese merchants had visited Taiwan by the 1340s.^[14]

In 1349, Wang Dayuan documented his visit to Taiwan,^[15] noting the absence of Chinese settlers on the island, but their presence on Penghu.^[16] He distinguished different regions of Taiwan as Liuqiu and Pisheye. Liuqiu was described as a land of vast forests and mountains with a warmer climate than Penghu. Its inhabitants had unique customs, relied on rafts for transport, wore colorful clothing, and derived salt from seawater and liquor from sugarcane. They practiced cannibalism against foes and had a variety of local products and trade items.^[17] On the other hand, Pisheye, situated to the east, was characterized by its mountainous terrain and limited agriculture. Its residents had distinct tattoos, wore hair in tufts, and engaged in raiding and kidnapping.^[18] Historian Efren B. Isorena deduced that the Pisheye people of Taiwan and the Visayans from the Philippines were closely related, as the Visayans were known to travel to Taiwan before raiding China.^[19]

By the early 16th century, there was a noticeable increase in the number of Chinese fishermen, traders, and pirates frequenting the southwestern part of Taiwan. Some Fujian merchants were even fluent in Formosan languages. As the century progressed, Taiwan became a strategic point for Chinese traders and pirates evading Ming authority, with some establishing brief settlements on the island. Names like Xiaodong dao and Dahui guo were used to refer to Taiwan during this period, with "Taiwan" being derived from the tribe Tayouan. Notable pirates like Lin Daoqian and Lin Feng also used Taiwan as a temporary base before facing opposition from indigenous groups and the Ming navy. In 1593, Ming officials began formally acknowledging the existing illegal trade in northern Taiwan by issuing licenses for Chinese junks to trade there.^[20]

Chinese merchants initially traded iron and textiles with the indigenous people of northern Taiwan in exchange for resources like coal, sulfur, gold, and venison. However, as time went on, the southwestern region of Taiwan became the primary focus for Chinese traders due to the abundance of mullet fish and deerskins. The latter was especially lucrative, as they were sold to the Japanese for significant profits.^[21] This trade boomed after 1567, serving as an indirect way for the Chinese to engage in Sino-Japanese trade despite bans. In 1603, Chen Di led an expedition to Taiwan to combat the Wokou pirates,^[20] during which he encountered and documented the local indigenous tribes and their lifestyles in "Dongfanji (An Account of the Eastern Barbarians)."

Portuguese sailors, passing Taiwan in 1544, first jotted in a ship's log the name of the island Ilha Formosa, meaning "Beautiful Island". In 1582, the survivors of a Portuguese shipwreck spent ten weeks (45 days) battling malaria and aborigines before returning to Macau on a raft.

In the early 17th century, Chen Di visited Taiwan during an expedition against the Wokou pirates.^[21] Following a confrontation, General Shen of Wuyu overcame the pirates, and the indigenous chieftain Damila offered gifts in gratitude.^[22] Chen meticulously documented his observations in Dongfanji (An Account of the Eastern Barbarians),^[23] providing insights into Taiwan's indigenous inhabitants and their way of life.

Chen described the indigenous people, known as the Eastern Barbarians, as residing in various regions of Taiwan such as Wanggang, Dayuan, and Yaogang. These communities, ranging from 500 to 1000 individuals, lacked a centralized leadership, often respecting and following the individual with the most offspring. The inhabitants were athletic and swift, capable of running vast distances at horse-like speeds. They settled disputes through agreed-upon combat, practicing headhunting,^[24] and dealt with thieves through public execution.^[25]

The region's climate was warm, leading the locals to wear minimal clothing. Men sported short hair and pierced ears, while women kept their hair long and adorned their teeth. Notably, the women were hardworking and the primary breadwinners, while the men tended to be idle.^[25] The indigenous people lacked a formal calendar system, resulting in them losing track of time and their ages.^[24]

Their dwellings were constructed from bamboo and thatch, materials abundant in the region. Tribal communities had a "common-house" for unmarried males, which also served as a meeting point for discussions. Marriage customs were unique; upon choosing a partner, a boy would gift agate beads to the girl of interest. Acceptance of the gift would lead to musical courtship, followed by the boy moving in with the girl's family post-marriage, a reason why daughters were more favored.

Agriculturally, the natives practiced slash-and-burn farming. They cultivated crops such as soya bean, lentil, and sesame, and enjoyed a variety of vegetables and fruits, including sweet potatoes, citron, and sugarcane. Their rice was described as superior in taste and length compared to what Chen was familiar with. Banquets involved drinking liquor made from fermented rice and herbs, accompanied by song and dance.^[26] Their diet included deer and pig meat but excluded chicken,^[27] and they engaged in hunting using bamboo and iron spears.

Interestingly, despite being island inhabitants, they did not venture into the sea, limiting their fishing to small streams. Historically, during the Yongle period, the famous explorer Zheng He tried to establish contact with these indigenous tribes, but they remained elusive. By the 1560s, after attacks from the Wokou pirates, the indigenous tribes began interacting with China. Chinese traders from various harbors established trade links, exchanging goods for deer products. The indigenous people treasured items like Chinese clothing, wearing them only during trade interactions. Chen, reflecting on their lifestyle, appreciated their simplicity and contentment.

In 1616, Murayama Tōan was directed by the Tokugawa Shogunate to invade Taiwan.^[28] This followed a first exploratory mission by Arima Harunobu in 1609. The objective was to establish a base for the direct supply of silk from China,^[29] instead of having to supply it from Portuguese-controlled Macao or Spanish-controlled Manila.

Murayama had a fleet of 13 ships and around 4,000 men, under the command of one of his sons. They left Nagasaki on 15 May 1616. The invasion attempt ended in failure however. A typhoon dispersed the fleet and put an early end to the invasion effort.^[30] The king of Ryukyu Sho Nei had warned Ming China of the Japanese intentions to capture the island and to use it as a trading base with China,^[29] but in any case only one ship managed to reach the island and it was repelled by local forces. The single ship was ambushed in a Formosan creek, and all her crew committed suicide ("seppuku") to avoid capture.^[28] Several ships diverted themselves to plunder the Chinese coast and are reported "to have killed above 1,200 Chinese, and taken all the barkes or junks they met withal, throwing the people overboard".^[31]

From 1624 to 1662 and again from 1664 to 1668, the island of Taiwan, often referred to as Formosa, was under the colonial control of the Dutch Republic. During the Age of Discovery, the Dutch East India Company set up its base on Formosa to facilitate trade with neighboring regions like the Ming Empire in China and the Tokugawa shogunate in Japan. Additionally, they aimed to counteract the trade and colonial endeavors of the Portuguese and Spanish in East Asia.

However, the Dutch faced resistance and had to suppress uprisings from both the indigenous people and recent Han Chinese settlers. As the Qing dynasty emerged in the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company shifted its allegiance from the Ming to the Qing, in return for unrestricted access to trade routes. This colonial chapter concluded after Koxinga's forces besieged Fort Zeelandia in 1662, leading to the Dutch expulsion and the establishment of the Ming-loyalist, anti-Qing Kingdom of Tungning.

Spanish Formosa was a colony of the Spanish Empire located in northern Taiwan from 1626 to 1642. Established to safeguard regional trade with the Philippines from Dutch interference, it was part of the Spanish East Indies based in Manila. However, the colony's significance diminished, and Spanish authorities in Manila were reluctant to invest further in its defense. After 17 years, the Dutch besieged and captured the last Spanish fortress, gaining control over a large portion of Taiwan. The territory was eventually ceded to the Dutch Republic during the Eighty Years' War.

The Hakkas were living in Honan and Shantung provinces of north central China about the third century BCE. Then they were compelled to move south of the Yangtze river to escape invading hordes of nomads from the north. They finally settled down in Kiangsi, Fukien, Kwangtung, Kwangsi, and Hainan. They were called "strangers" by the native peoples.

The first exodus of Hakkas to Taiwan took place around 1630 when a severe famine afflicted the mainland.^[33] By the time of the Hakkas' arrival, the best land had been taken by the Hoklos and the cities were already established. Additionally, the two peoples spoke different dialects. The "strangers" found it difficult to find a place in the Hoklo communities. Most Hakkas were relegated to rural areas, where they farmed marginal land. The majority of Hakkas still live in such agricultural counties as Taoyuan, Hsinchu, Miaoli, and Pingtung. Those in Chiayi, Hualien, and Taitung migrated there from other areas during the Japanese occupation.

The second immigration of Hakkas to Taiwan was in the years just after 1662, when Cheng Cheng-kung, a general of the Ming court and known as Koxinga in the West, expelled the Dutch from the island. Some historians assert that Cheng, a native of Amoy, was a Hakka. Thus the Hakkas once more became "strangers", because most of those who migrated to Taiwan came after the 16th century.

In the 17th century, the Chinese coast experienced a surge in maritime trade, but the weakened Ming navy allowed pirates to control this commerce. Prominent pirate leader, Zheng Zhilong, utilizing European technology, dominated the Fujian coast. In 1628, the declining Ming dynasty decided to recruit him. Meanwhile, the Dutch, aiming for free trade in China, initially established a position on the Pescadores. However, after a defeat by the Ming, they moved to Taiwan. Zheng, now a Ming admiral, allied with the Dutch governor of Taiwan, Hans Putmans, to combat piracy. Still, tensions arose over unfulfilled trade promises by Zheng, culminating in a surprise Dutch attack on Zheng's base in 1633.

Zheng's fleet, heavily influenced by European design, was caught off-guard by the Dutch attack, thinking them allies. Most of the fleet was destroyed, with only a few workers aboard, who fled the scene. After this assault, the Dutch dominated the sea, plundering villages and capturing ships. They even formed a pirate coalition. However, their aggressive tactics united Zheng with his political adversaries. Preparing for retaliation, Zheng rebuilt his fleet and, using stalling tactics, awaited the perfect opportunity to strike. In October 1633, a large-scale naval battle ensued at Liaoluo Bay. The Ming fleet, utilizing fireships, inflicted significant damage on the Dutch. The latter's superior sailing technology allowed some to escape, but the overall victory went to the Ming.

The Ming's triumph at Liaoluo Bay reinstated China's authority in the Taiwan Strait, causing the Dutch to halt their piracy along the Chinese coast. While the Dutch believed they had shown their strength, the Ming felt they had achieved a significant victory. Zheng Zhilong's position was elevated after the battle, and he utilized his influence to grant the Dutch the trading privileges they sought. As a result, while Zheng chose not to rebuild the European-styled ships lost in the 1633 attack, he consolidated power over the overseas Chinese trade, becoming one of the wealthiest individuals in China.

In the 1630s, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) aimed to expand its control over southwestern Taiwan, where they had established a foothold at Tayouan but faced resistance from local aboriginal villages. The village of Mattau was particularly hostile, having ambushed and killed sixty Dutch soldiers in 1629. In 1635, after receiving reinforcements from Batavia, the Dutch initiated a campaign against these villages. The strong display of Dutch military might led to the swift subjugation of key villages like Mattau and Soulang. Witnessing this, numerous surrounding villages voluntarily sought peace with the Dutch, preferring surrender to conflict.

The consolidation of Dutch rule in the southwest paved the way for the colony's future successes. The newly acquired territories opened up opportunities in the deer trade, which became highly profitable for the Dutch. Additionally, the fertile lands attracted Chinese laborers, who were brought in to cultivate them. The allied aboriginal villages not only became trading partners but also provided warriors to assist the Dutch in various conflicts. Moreover, the stabilized region allowed Dutch missionaries to disseminate their religious beliefs, further establishing the colony's foundation. This era of relative stability is sometimes referred to as the Pax Hollandica (Dutch Peace) by scholars and historians, drawing a parallel with the Pax Romana.^[39]

In the mid-17th century, the Dutch encouraged large-scale Han Chinese immigration to Taiwan, primarily from southern Fujian. These immigrants, mainly young single males, were hesitant to settle on the island, which had garnered a menacing reputation among sailors and explorers. Tensions escalated due to rising rice prices, oppressive Dutch taxes, and corrupt officials, culminating in the Guo Huaiyi rebellion of 1652. The rebellion was a direct response to these factors and was brutally suppressed by the Dutch, with 25% of the rebels being killed in a short span.^[32]

By the late 1640s, various challenges including population growth, Dutch-imposed taxes, and restrictions led to further discontent among the Chinese settlers. In 1643, a pirate named Kinwang began launching attacks on native villages, further destabilizing the region. He was eventually captured by the natives and handed over to the Dutch for execution. However, his legacy continued when a document was discovered inciting the Chinese to rebel against the Dutch. The Guo Huaiyi-led rebellion in 1652 saw a massive Chinese peasant army attacking Sakam. Despite their numbers, they were outmatched by a combination of Dutch firepower and native warriors. The aftermath witnessed a significant massacre of Chinese rebels, with thousands losing their lives.

Post-rebellion, Taiwan faced an agricultural crisis due to the loss of its rural labor force, as many of the rebels had been farmers. The subsequent harvest in 1653 was notably poor due to the labor shortage. However, the migration of more Chinese to Taiwan because of mainland unrest led to a modest agricultural recovery the following year. Relations between the Chinese and the Dutch deteriorated further, with the Dutch positioning themselves as protectors of the native lands against Chinese expansion. This period also witnessed an increase in anti-Chinese sentiment, with natives being advised to maintain distance from the Chinese settlers. Despite the significant rebellion, the Dutch made minimal military preparations, relying on the fact that many of the wealthy Chinese had remained loyal to them.

The Siege of Fort Zeelandia (1661-1662) marked a pivotal moment in Taiwan's history, ending the Dutch East India Company's dominance and ushering in the Kingdom of Tungning's rule. The Dutch had established their presence in Taiwan, particularly at Fort Zeelandia and Fort Provintia. However, in the mid-1660s, Koxinga, a Ming loyalist, saw the strategic importance of Taiwan. Armed with detailed knowledge from a defector and possessing a formidable fleet and army, Koxinga launched an invasion. Despite initial resistance, the Dutch were outmaneuvered and outgunned. After a prolonged siege, dwindling supplies, and no hope for reinforcements, the Dutch, led by Governor Frederick Coyett, surrendered Fort Zeelandia to Koxinga.

Both sides employed brutal tactics during the conflict. The Chinese captured many Dutch prisoners, and following failed negotiation attempts, they executed several, including the missionary Antonius Hambroek. Dutch women and children were enslaved, with some women forced into concubinage. The Dutch also had confrontations with the local Taiwanese indigenous communities, who at various times allied with both the Dutch and the Chinese.

Following the siege, the Dutch attempted to reclaim their lost territories but faced continuous challenges. They formed an alliance with the Qing dynasty against the Zheng forces, resulting in sporadic naval battles. By 1668, aborigine resistance and strategic challenges forced the Dutch to abandon their last stronghold in Keelung, marking their complete exit from Taiwan. However, naval skirmishes between the Dutch and Koxinga's successors continued, with the Dutch suffering further defeats.

The Kingdom of Tungning was a dynastic maritime state that governed parts of southwestern Taiwan and the Penghu islands from 1661 to 1683. It was founded by Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) who renamed Zeelandia to Anping and Provintia to Chikan^{[40 ]}after seizing control of Taiwan from the Dutch. On 29 May 1662, Chikan was renamed to "Ming Eastern Capital" (Dongdu Mingjing). Later "Eastern Capital" (Dongdu) was renamed Dongning (Tungning), which means "Eastern Pacification,"^{[41 ]}

Recognized as the first state in Taiwanese history to be predominantly ethnic Han, its maritime influence extended across major sea routes in both China Seas, with trade connections reaching from Japan to Southeast Asia. The kingdom served as a base for loyalists of the Ming dynasty, which was being overtaken by the Qing dynasty in mainland China. During its rule, Taiwan experienced sinicization as the Zheng dynasty aimed to fortify their resistance against the Qing. The kingdom existed until its incorporation into the Qing dynasty in 1683.

Zheng Jing continued the legacy of Ming governance in Taiwan, gaining the support of Ming loyalists. His administration, spearheaded by his family and officers, focused on agricultural and infrastructural development. By 1666, Taiwan was self-sufficient in terms of grain harvests.^[42] Under his rule, various cultural and educational institutions were established, including an Imperial Academy and Confucian Shrine, along with the implementation of regular civil service exams.^[43] Zheng Jing also sought to educate the aboriginal tribes, introducing them to advanced farming techniques and the Chinese language.^[44]

Despite efforts to assimilate the aboriginal people, the expansion of Chinese settlements led to tensions and rebellions. Zheng Jing’s rule was harsh on those who resisted his policies; for instance, several hundred Shalu tribe members were killed during one campaign. At the same time, the Chinese population in Taiwan more than doubled,^[45] and military troops were transitioned into military colonies. 

By 1684, Taiwan’s cultivated land had tripled compared to what it was at the end of the Dutch era in 1660.^[46] Zheng’s merchant fleets were able to maintain trade relations with Japan and Southeast Asia, securing profits through the Taiwan Strait. Taiwan under Zheng Jing not only held monopolies on certain commodities like deer skin and sugarcane but also achieved greater economic diversification than the Dutch colony it replaced. Additionally, by the end of Zheng's rule in 1683, the government was generating over 30% more annual income in silver than under Dutch rule in 1655.

Shi Lang, initially a military leader under Zheng Zhilong, later defected to the Qing dynasty after conflicts with Zheng Chenggong. As part of the Qing, Shi played a key role in campaigns against the Zheng forces, using his intimate knowledge of Zheng's internal workings. He rose through the ranks and was appointed as the naval commander of Fujian in 1662. Over the years, he consistently advocated for and led aggressive actions against the Zhengs, even clashing with the Dutch forces in his pursuits. By 1664, despite some successes, Shi couldn't completely eliminate the Zheng stronghold in mainland China.

Shi Lang proposed a strategic invasion of Taiwan, emphasizing the need for a pre-emptive strike on the Zhengs. However, disagreements on the approach with officials like Yao Qisheng led to bureaucratic tensions. Shi's plan focused on capturing Penghu first, but Yao proposed simultaneous attacks on multiple fronts. The Kangxi Emperor initially did not grant Shi full control over the invasion. Meanwhile, in Taiwan, internal strife and external pressures weakened the Zheng's position, leading to defections and further instability.

By 1683, Shi, now with a massive fleet and army, initiated the invasion of Taiwan. After some initial setbacks and tactical regrouping, Shi's forces decisively defeated the Zheng fleet in the bay of Magong, resulting in substantial Zheng casualties. Following this victory, the Qing forces quickly captured Penghu and subsequently Taiwan. The island's leadership, including Zheng Keshuang, formally surrendered, adopting Qing customs and effectively ending the Zheng's reign in Taiwan.

During the Qing dynasty's rule over Taiwan, the government initially restricted migration from the mainland to Taiwan due to fears of overpopulation and resulting conflict. Despite this, illegal migration flourished, as local manpower shortages prompted officials to look the other way or even actively bring people over. Over the 18th century, the Qing government flip-flopped on migration policies, at times allowing families to enter Taiwan and at other times barring them. These inconsistencies led to a majority-male migrant population that often married locally, spawning the idiom "has Tangshan father, no Tangshan mother."

The Qing government was cautious in its administrative approach to Taiwan, especially regarding territorial expansion and interaction with the island's aboriginal populations. They initially limited administrative control to key ports and certain plains areas, requiring permits for settlers to expand beyond these regions. Over time, due to continued illegal land reclamation and migration, the Qing extended control over the entire western plains. Aboriginal people were categorized into those who had acculturated (shufan) and those who had not (shengfan), but efforts to administer these groups were minimal.

Boundaries were established to segregate aborigines from settlers and were reinforced multiple times over the years. However, the enforcement was weak, leading to continuous encroachment by settlers into aboriginal territories. Despite the Qing administration's cautious stance and efforts to manage aboriginal affairs, settlers often used marriage to aboriginal women as a means of claiming land, leading to a 1737 prohibition against such unions. By the late 18th century, the Qing government began to relax its strict regulations on cross-strait migration and ultimately ceased to actively interfere, finally repealing all restrictions on entering Taiwan in 1875.

During the Qing Dynasty's rule over Taiwan, various rebellions broke out, reflecting the complicated dynamics between different ethnic groups and the state. In 1723, aboriginal tribes along the central coastal plain and Han settlers in Fengshan County separately revolted, underscoring the tensions between local populations and Qing governance.

In 1720, the Zhu Yigui rebellion emerged as a response to increased taxation, illustrating the economic pressures felt by the local population. Zhu Yigui and Hakka leader Lin Junying led the rebels in a sweeping victory over Qing forces across Taiwan. However, their alliance was short-lived, and a Qing fleet under Shi Shibian was dispatched to crush the rebellion. Zhu Yigui was captured and executed, extinguishing one of the most significant anti-Qing uprisings in Taiwan during this period.

In 1786, a new revolt broke out led by Lin Shuangwen of the Tiandihui society, sparked by the arrest of society members for tax evasion. The rebellion initially gained momentum, with many rebels consisting of new arrivals from mainland China who struggled to find land. Despite attempts to enlist support from the Hakka people, the Qing managed to suppress the uprising by 1788 with 50,000 troops led by Li Shiyao, and later, additional forces led by Fuk'anggan and Hailanqa. Unlike previous revolts, the Tiandihui's rebellion was not motivated primarily by national or ethnic grievances but was more a sign of broad social unrest. Lin Shuangwen was executed, marking the end of another significant challenge to Qing authority in Taiwan.

Throughout the 200 years of Qing rule, it is noted that the plains aborigines were mostly non-rebellious and mountain aborigines were largely left alone until the final decades of Qing administration. Most revolts were initiated by Han settlers, often for reasons such as taxation or social discord rather than ethnic or national interests.

By 1831, the East India Company decided it no longer wanted to trade with the Chinese on their terms and planned more aggressive measures. Given the strategic and commercial value of Taiwan, there were British suggestions in 1840 and 1841 to seize the island. William Huttman wrote to Lord Palmerston pointing out "China's benign rule over Taiwan and the strategic and commercial importance of the island."^[47] He suggested that Taiwan could be occupied with only a warship and less than 1,500 troops, and the English would be able to spread Christianity among the natives as well as develop trade.^[48] In 1841, during the First Opium War, the British tried to scale the heights around the harbor of Keelung three times but failed.^[49] Ultimately, the British were unable to establish a strong foothold, and the expedition is considered a failure.

The Formosa Expedition was a punitive expedition launched by the United States against the Paiwan, an indigenous Taiwanese tribe. The expedition was undertaken in retaliation for the Rover incident, in which the Rover, an American bark, was wrecked and its crew massacred by Paiwan warriors in March 1867. A United States Navy and Marine company landed in southern Taiwan and attempted to advance into the Paiwan village. The Paiwan responded with guerrilla warfare, repeatedly ambushing, skirmishing, disengaging and retreating. Eventually, the Marines' commander was killed and they retreated to their ship due to fatigue and heat exhaustion, and the Paiwan dispersed and retreated into the jungle. The action is regarded as an American failure.

In December 1871, a Ryukyuan vessel shipwrecked off the coast of Taiwan, leading to the death of 54 sailors at the hands of Paiwan aborigines. This event, known as the Mudan Incident, eventually garnered international attention. Initially, the Qing Dynasty, which had a long history of repatriating Ryukyuan shipwreck survivors, handled the situation by facilitating the return of the surviving sailors. However, the incident ignited political tensions, especially when Japanese General Sukenori Kabayama advocated for military action against Taiwan, and Japan dethroned the Ryukyuan king.

Diplomatic negotiations between Japan and Qing China intensified, culminating in a Japanese military expedition to Taiwan in 1874. Despite initial successes, the expedition faced setbacks, including guerrilla warfare from indigenous tribes and an outbreak of malaria that severely affected the troops. Qing representatives and local tribes complained of Japanese aggression but were largely ignored. The Japanese set up camps and flags, asserting their jurisdiction over the territories they encountered.

Ultimately, international pressure and the deteriorating health of the Japanese expeditionary force led to diplomatic talks between Japan and Qing China, resulting in the Peking Agreement. Japan gained recognition of Ryukyu as its vassal state and received an indemnity payment from China, eventually withdrawing troops from Taiwan in December 1874. The Mudan Incident and its aftermath marked a critical point in Sino-Japanese relations, highlighting the growing assertiveness of Japan in regional affairs and setting a precedent for future conflicts between the two nations.

The period from 1874 to the end of the Qing rule in Taiwan was marked by significant efforts to exert control over the island and modernize it. Following Japan's temporary invasion in 1874, the Qing administration aimed to strengthen its hold over Taiwan, especially in the territories inhabited by aborigines. Infrastructure projects, including mountain roads and telegraph lines, were initiated, and aboriginal tribes were formally brought under Qing rule. Despite these efforts, the Qing faced challenges such as the Sino-French War, which saw the French temporarily occupying parts of Taiwan.

Taiwan underwent various changes in governance and infrastructure under Qing rule. Liu Mingchuan, the Taiwan defense commissioner, was particularly active in modernization efforts, including the introduction of electric lighting, railways, and industrial machinery. However, these efforts met with limited success and drew criticism for their high costs relative to their benefits. Liu eventually resigned in 1891, and active colonization efforts ceased.

By the end of the Qing era, the island had around 2.5 million Chinese inhabitants concentrated in the western plains, while the mountainous areas remained largely autonomous and inhabited by aborigines. Although efforts were made to bring the aborigines under Qing control, with about 148,479 formally submitting, the cost of these efforts was high and not entirely effective. Moreover, acculturation had made significant inroads, eroding the cultural and land ownership status of the plains aborigines.

During the Sino-French War, the French targeted Taiwan in the Keelung Campaign of 1884. Initially, the French forces led by Sébastien Lespès bombarded Keelung's harbor but faced resistance from a larger Chinese force under Liu Mingchuan, forcing them to withdraw. However, on October 1, Amédée Courbet led 2,250 French troops to successfully capture Keelung, despite failing to take Tamsui. The French then imposed a blockade on Taiwan, but it was only partially effective. French ships captured junks around mainland China's coast to use the occupants for constructing defensive works in Keelung, but supply junks continued to arrive at Takau and Anping, undermining the blockade.

By late January 1885, Chinese forces suffered a significant defeat around Keelung. Despite capturing the city, the French were unable to extend their control beyond its limits. Attempts to capture Tamsui failed again in March, and a French naval bombardment led to the surrender of Penghu. However, many French soldiers fell ill shortly afterward, debilitating their fighting capabilities.

An armistice was reached on April 15, 1885, signaling the end of hostilities. The French completed their evacuation from Keelung by June 21, and Penghu remained under Chinese control. Despite their early successes and imposing a blockade, the French campaign in Taiwan ultimately yielded limited strategic gains.

The Treaty of Shimonoseki was an treaty signed at the Shunpanrō hotel, Shimonoseki, Japan on April 17, 1895, between the Empire of Japan and Qing China, ending the First Sino-Japanese War. Among the treaty terms,

Articles 2 & 3: China cedes to Japan in perpetuity and full sovereignty of the Pescadores group, Formosa (Taiwan) and the eastern portion of the bay of Liaodong Peninsula (Dalian) together with all fortifications, arsenals, and public property.

During the summit between Japanese and Qing representatives in March and April 1895, Prime Minister Hirobumi Ito and Foreign Minister Munemitsu Mutsu wanted to reduce the power of Qing Dynasty on not only the Korean Peninsula but also the Taiwan islands. Moreover, Mutsu had already noticed its importance in order to expand Japanese military power towards South China and Southeast Asia. It was also the age of imperialism, so Japan wished to mimic what the Western nations were doing. Imperial Japan was seeking colonies and resources in the Korean Peninsula and Mainland China to compete with the presence of Western powers at that time. This was the way the Japanese leadership chose to illustrate how fast Imperial Japan had advanced compared to the West since the 1867 Meiji Restoration, and the extent it wanted to amend the unequal treaties that were held in the Far East by the Western powers.

At the peace conference between Imperial Japan and Qing Dynasty, Li Hongzhang and Li Jingfang, the ambassadors at the negotiation desk of Qing Dynasty, originally did not plan to cede Taiwan because they also realized Taiwan's great location for trading with the West. Therefore, even though the Qing had lost wars against Britain and France in the 19th century, the Qing Emperor was serious about keeping Taiwan under its rule, which began in 1683.

At the first half of the conference, Ito and Mutsu claimed that yielding the full sovereignty of Taiwan was an absolute condition and requested Li to hand over full sovereignty of Penghu Islands and the eastern portion of the bay of Liaotung (Dalian). Li Hongzhang refused on the grounds that Taiwan had never been a battlefield during the first Sino-Japanese War between 1894 and 1895. By the final stage of the conference, while Li Hongzhang agreed to the transfer of full sovereignty of the Penghu islands and the eastern portion of the bay of Liaotung Peninsula to Imperial Japan, he still refused to hand over Taiwan. As Taiwan had been a province since 1885, Li stated, "Taiwan is already a province, and therefore not to be given away."

However, as Imperial Japan had the militaristic advantage, and eventually Li gave Taiwan up. On April 17, 1895, the peace treaty between Imperial Japan and the Qing dynasty had been signed and was followed by the successful Japanese invasion of Taiwan. This had a huge and lasting impact on Taiwan, the turning over of the island to Imperial Japan marking the end of 200 years of Qing rule despite local Chinese resistance against the annexation, which was quashed swiftly by the Japanese.

Taiwan came under Japanese rule in 1895 following the Treaty of Shimonoseki, which concluded the First Sino-Japanese War. The Qing dynasty ceded the territory to Japan, leading to five decades of Japanese governance. The island served as Japan's first colony and was intended to be a "model colony," with extensive investment in its economic and public development. Japan also aimed at culturally assimilating Taiwan and established various monopolies on essential goods like opium, salt, and petroleum.

The end of World War II marked the close of Japanese administrative control over Taiwan. Japan surrendered in September 1945, and the Republic of China (ROC) assumed control over the territory, following the issuing of General Order No. 1. Japan formally relinquished sovereignty over Taiwan with the Treaty of San Francisco, which became effective on April 28, 1952.

The period of Japanese rule has left a complicated legacy in Taiwan. Post-WWII discussions in Taiwan have divergent views on several issues related to this era, including the February 28 massacre of 1947, Taiwan Retrocession Day, and the plight of Taiwanese comfort women. The experience also plays a role in ongoing debates about Taiwan's national and ethnic identity, as well as its formal independence movement.

The Japanese invasion of Taiwan was a conflict between the Empire of Japan and the armed forces of the short-lived Republic of Formosa following the Qing dynasty's cession of Taiwan to Japan in April 1895 at the end of the First Sino-Japanese War. The Japanese sought to take control of their new possession, while the Republican forces fought to resist Japanese occupation. The Japanese landed near Keelung on the northern coast of Taiwan on 29 May 1895, and in a five-month campaign swept southwards to Tainan. Although their advance was slowed by guerrilla activity, the Japanese defeated the Formosan forces (a mixture of regular Chinese units and local Hakka militias) whenever they attempted to make a stand. The Japanese victory at Baguashan on 27 August, the largest battle ever fought on Taiwanese soil, doomed the Formosan resistance to an early defeat. The fall of Tainan on 21 October ended organised resistance to Japanese occupation, and inaugurated five decades of Japanese rule in Taiwan.

The Japanese colonial rule in Taiwan, which began in 1895, was met with significant armed resistance that lasted until the early 20th century. Initial resistance was spearheaded by the Republic of Formosa, Qing officials, and local militias. Armed uprisings persisted even after the fall of Taipei, with Hakka villagers and Chinese nationalists often leading the revolts. Notably, thousands were killed in various massacres and uprisings like the Yunlin Massacre and the initial resistance war of 1895. Major rebellions were more or less subdued by 1902, but incidents like the Beipu uprising in 1907 and the Tapani Incident in 1915 indicated ongoing tension and defiance against Japanese rule. 

Indigenous communities also fiercely resisted Japanese control until the 1930s. The government’s military campaigns in the mountainous areas of Taiwan resulted in the destruction of numerous aboriginal villages, particularly affecting the Atayal and Bunun tribes. The last significant aboriginal uprising was the Musha (Wushe) Uprising in 1930, led by the Seediq people. This rebellion resulted in hundreds of casualties and concluded with the suicide of Seediq leaders.

The violent opposition to Japanese rule led to a change in colonial policy, including a more conciliatory stance towards the indigenous populations after the Musha Incident. Nonetheless, the legacy of resistance has had a profound impact on Taiwan's history and collective memory, emphasizing the complex and often brutal relationship between the colonizers and the colonized. The events of this period are deeply ingrained in Taiwan’s social and political fabric, continuing to influence debates and perspectives on national identity and historical trauma.

The Chinese Civil War was fought between the Kuomintang (KMT)-led government of the Republic of China (ROC) and forces of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), lasting intermittently after 1927.

The war is generally divided into two phases with an interlude: from August 1927 to 1937, the KMT-CCP Alliance collapsed during the Northern Expedition, and the Nationalists controlled most of China. From 1937 to 1945, hostilities were mostly put on hold as the Second United Front fought the Japanese invasion of China with eventual help from the Allies of World War II, but even then co-operation between the KMT and CCP was minimal and armed clashes between them were common. Exacerbating the divisions within China further was that a puppet government, sponsored by Japan and nominally led by Wang Jingwei, was set up to nominally govern the parts of China under Japanese occupation.

The civil war resumed as soon as it became apparent that the Japanese defeat was imminent, and the CCP gained the upper hand in the second phase of the war from 1945 to 1949, generally referred to as the Chinese Communist Revolution.

The Communists gained control of mainland China and established the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, forcing the leadership of the Republic of China to retreat to the island of Taiwan. Starting in the 1950s, a lasting political and military standoff between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait has ensued, with the ROC in Taiwan and the PRC in mainland China both officially claiming to be the legitimate government of all China. After the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis, both tacitly ceased fire in 1979; however, no armistice or peace treaty has ever been signed.

During the Japanese colonial period in Taiwan, the Meiji government implemented a mix of forceful and assimilative policies to establish control. Count Kodama Gentarō, the fourth Governor-General, and Gotō Shinpei, his Chief of Home Affairs, introduced a "carrot and stick" approach to governance.^[34] One of Gotō's key reforms was the Hoko system, adapted from Qing dynasty's baojia system, to exercise community control. This system involved organizing communities into groups of ten households, called Ko, for tasks like tax collection and population monitoring. Gotō also established police stations across the island, which undertook additional roles like education and maintaining small barter economies in rural and aboriginal areas.

In 1914, the Taiwan assimilation movement, spearheaded by Itagaki Taisuke, sought to integrate Taiwan with Japan, responding to appeals from Taiwanese elites. The Taiwan Dōkakai society was formed for this purpose and quickly gained support from both the Japanese and Taiwanese populations. However, the society was eventually disbanded, and its leaders arrested. Full assimilation was rarely achieved, and a policy of strict segregation between the Japanese and Taiwanese was maintained until 1922.^[35] Taiwanese who moved to Japan for studies could integrate more freely but remained aware of their distinct identity.

In 1937, as Japan went to war with China, the colonial government implemented the kōminka policies aimed at Japanizing Taiwanese society completely. This involved eradicating Taiwanese culture, including banning the Chinese language from newspapers and education,^[36] erasing China and Taiwan's history,^[37] and replacing traditional Taiwanese practices with Japanese customs. Despite these efforts, the results were mixed; only 7% of Taiwanese adopted Japanese names,^[38] and many well-educated families failed to learn the Japanese language. These policies left a lasting impact on Taiwan’s cultural landscape, underlining the complex nature of its colonial history.

In September 1945, the Republic of China set up the Taiwan Provincial Government^[50] and declared October 25, 1945, as "Taiwan Retrocession Day," marking the day Japanese troops surrendered. However, this unilateral annexation of Taiwan was not recognized by the Allies of World War II, as Japan had not yet formally given up sovereignty over the island. During the early post-war years, the Kuomintang (KMT) administration led by Chen Yi was plagued by corruption and a breakdown in military discipline, which severely compromised the chain of command. The island's economy also faced significant challenges, entering into a recession and causing widespread financial hardship.

Prior to the end of the war, approximately 309,000 Japanese residents lived in Taiwan.^[51] After the Japanese surrender in 1945 until April 25, 1946, Republic of China forces sent back 90% of these Japanese residents to Japan.^[52] Alongside this repatriation, a policy of "De-Japanization" was implemented, leading to cultural rifts. The transition period also generated tensions between the incoming population from mainland China and the island's pre-war residents. Chen Yi's monopolization of power exacerbated these issues, leading to an unstable environment marked by both economic difficulties and social tensions.

The February 28 incident in 1947 marked a critical turning point in Taiwan's modern history, igniting the Taiwan independence movement. The anti-government uprising began when Tobacco Monopoly agents clashed with civilians, leading to a man being shot and killed. The incident quickly escalated as crowds in Taipei and eventually across Taiwan protested against the Kuomintang (KMT)-led government of the Republic of China. Their grievances included corruption, inflation, and unemployment. Despite initial control by Taiwanese civilians who presented a list of 32 demands for reform, the government, under provincial governor Chen Yi, awaited reinforcements from mainland China.

Upon the arrival of reinforcements, a brutal crackdown was launched. Reports detailed indiscriminate killing and arrests by the troops. Leading Taiwanese organizers were systematically imprisoned or executed, with estimates of the total death toll ranging from 18,000 to 28,000.^[53] Some Taiwanese groups were declared "communist," leading to the arrest and execution of their members. The incident was particularly devastating to Taiwanese who had formerly served in the Imperial Japanese Army, as they were specifically targeted during the government's retaliation.

The February 28 incident had lasting political ramifications. Despite the "merciless brutality" displayed in suppressing the uprising, Chen Yi was only relieved of his governor-general duties more than a year later. He was eventually executed in 1950 for attempting to defect to the Chinese Communist Party. The events greatly fueled the Taiwan independence movement and remain a dark chapter in Taiwan-ROC relations.

Martial law was declared in Taiwan by Chen Cheng, chairman of the Taiwan Provincial Government, on May 19, 1949, amid the Chinese Civil War. This provincial declaration was later replaced by a nationwide martial law declaration from the central Government of the Republic of China, ratified by the Legislative Yuan on March 14, 1950. The period of martial law, which was overseen by the Republic of China Armed Forces and the Kuomintang-led government, lasted until it was lifted by President Chiang Ching-kuo on July 15, 1987. The span of martial law in Taiwan extended for over 38 years, making it the longest period of martial law imposed by any regime in the world at that time. This record was later surpassed by Syria.

In Taiwan, the White Terror is used to describe the political repression on civilians living on the island and the surrounding areas under its control by the government under the rule of the Kuomintang (KMT, i.e. Chinese Nationalist Party). The period of White Terror is generally considered to have begun when martial law was declared in Taiwan on 19 May 1949, which were enabled by the 1948 Temporary Provisions against the Communist Rebellion, and ended on 21 September 1992 with the repeal of Article 100 of the Criminal Code, which allowed for the prosecution of people for "anti-state" activities; the Temporary Provisions were repealed a year earlier on 22 April 1991 and martial law was lifted on 15 July 1987.

The Battle of Kuningtou, also known as the Battle of Kinmen, took place in 1949 during the Chinese Civil War. It was a pivotal battle fought over the island of Kinmen in the Taiwan Strait. The Communist People's Liberation Army (PLA) planned to seize Kinmen and Matsu islands as stepping stones for a larger invasion of Taiwan, which was controlled by the Republic of China (ROC) under Chiang Kai-shek. The PLA underestimated the ROC forces on Kinmen, thinking they would easily overcome them with their 19,000 troops. The ROC garrison, however, was well-prepared and heavily fortified, thwarting the PLA's amphibious assault and causing heavy casualties.

The battle began on October 25 when PLA forces were spotted and met with fierce resistance. Poor planning, underestimation of ROC's capabilities, and logistical difficulties led to a disorganized landing and a failure to secure beachheads for the PLA. ROC forces counterattacked effectively, leveraging their well-constructed defenses, land mines, and armor. The PLA suffered heavy losses, and their landing crafts were stranded due to tidal changes, rendering them vulnerable to attack from ROC Navy vessels and ground forces.

The failure of the PLA to capture Kinmen had far-reaching consequences. For the ROC, it was a morale-boosting victory that effectively halted Communist plans to invade Taiwan. The outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 and the subsequent signing of the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty in 1954 further deterred Communist invasion plans. The battle has been largely underpublicized in mainland China but is considered significant in Taiwan, as it set the stage for the ongoing political status quo between Taiwan and mainland China.

The Kuomintang's retreat to Taiwan refers to the exodus of the remnants of the internationally recognized Kuomintang-ruled government of the Republic of China (ROC) to the island of Taiwan (Formosa) on December 7, 1949, after losing the Chinese Civil War in the mainland. The Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party), its officers, and approximately 2 million ROC troops took part in the retreat, in addition to many civilians and refugees, fleeing the advance of the People's Liberation Army of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).

ROC troops mostly fled to Taiwan from provinces in southern China, in particular Sichuan Province, where the last stand of the ROC's main army took place. The flight to Taiwan took place over four months after Mao Zedong had proclaimed the founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in Beijing on October 1, 1949. The island of Taiwan remained part of Japan during the occupation until Japan severed its territorial claims in the Treaty of San Francisco, which came into effect in 1952.

After the retreat, the leadership of the ROC, particularly Generalissimo and President Chiang Kai-shek, planned to make the retreat only temporary, hoping to regroup, fortify, and reconquer the mainland.^[54] This plan, which never came into fruition, was known as "Project National Glory", and made the national priority of the ROC on Taiwan. Once it became apparent that such a plan could not be realized, the ROC's national focus shifted to the modernization and economic development of Taiwan.

In the years following World War II and during the Chinese Civil War, Taiwan experienced severe economic challenges, including rampant inflation and scarcity of goods. The Kuomintang (KMT) party took control of Taiwan and nationalized assets previously owned by the Japanese. With a focus on agriculture initially, Taiwan's economy rebounded to its pre-war levels by 1953. Supported by American aid and domestic policies like "Nurture industry with agriculture," the government began to diversify the economy towards industrialization. Import substitution policies were enacted to support domestic industries, and by the 1960s, Taiwan started to shift its focus towards export-oriented growth, attracting foreign investment and setting up Asia's first export processing zone in Kaohsiung. The efforts paid off, as Taiwan maintained high annual average economic growth from 1968 until the 1973 oil crisis.

During this period of recovery and growth, the KMT government implemented significant land reform policies that had far-reaching positive impacts. The 375 Rent Reduction Act reduced tax burdens on peasants, while another act redistributed land among small farmers and compensated large landowners with commodities and shares in state-owned industries. This dual approach not only eased the financial burden on the agricultural community but also gave rise to Taiwan's first generation of industrial capitalists.

The government's prudent fiscal policies, such as moving China's gold reserves to Taiwan, helped stabilize the newly issued New Taiwan dollar and curb hyperinflation. Real estate assets, nationalized from Japan, along with American aid like the China Aid Act and the Sino-American Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction, also contributed to Taiwan's quick post-war recovery. By capitalizing on these initiatives and foreign aid, Taiwan successfully transitioned from an agrarian economy to a burgeoning commercial and industrial powerhouse.

In the 1950s and 1960s, Taiwan underwent significant land reform that was executed in three primary phases. The first phase in 1949 involved capping agricultural rents at 37.5% of the harvest. The second phase began in 1951 and focused on selling public lands to tenant farmers. The third and final stage commenced in 1953 and centered on breaking up extensive landholdings to redistribute them to tenant farmers, an approach commonly referred to as "land-to-the-tiller."

After the Nationalist government retreated to Taiwan, the Sino-American Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction oversaw land reform and community development. One factor that made these reforms more palatable was that many of the major landowners were Japanese who had already left the island. The remaining large landowners were compensated with Japanese commercial and industrial assets that had been confiscated after Taiwan returned to Chinese rule in 1945.

Additionally, the land reform program benefited from the fact that the majority of the Kuomintang leadership came from Mainland China and, as such, had limited connections to the local Taiwanese landowners. This lack of local ties made it easier for the government to execute the land reforms effectively.

Between 1950 and 1965, Taiwan was the recipient of substantial financial assistance from the United States, totaling $1.5 billion in economic aid and an additional $2.4 billion in military support.^[55] This aid came to an end in 1965 when Taiwan had successfully established a robust financial foundation. Following this period of financial stabilization, ROC President Chiang Ching-kuo, the son of Chiang Kai-shek, initiated state-led endeavors like the Ten Major Construction Projects.^[56] These projects laid the groundwork for the development of a powerful economy driven by exports.

The Treaty of San Francisco was signed on September 8, 1951, and came into effect on April 28, 1952, officially ending the state of war between Japan and the Allied Powers and serving as Japan's peace treaty following World War II. Notably, China was not invited to participate in the treaty discussions due to disputes over which government—Republic of China (ROC) or People's Republic of China (PRC)—legitimately represented the Chinese people. The treaty had Japan renounce all claims to Taiwan, the Pescadores, the Spratly Islands, and the Paracel Islands.

The treaty's ambiguous wording regarding Taiwan's political status has led to the Theory of the Undetermined Status of Taiwan. This theory suggests that the sovereignty of either the ROC or PRC over Taiwan may be illegitimate or temporary and emphasizes that the issue should be resolved through the principle of self-determination. The theory generally leans toward Taiwanese independence and does not typically claim that Japan should still have sovereignty over Taiwan, although there are some exceptions.

The First Taiwan Strait Crisis began on September 3, 1954, when the People's Liberation Army (PLA) of the Communist People's Republic of China (PRC) started bombarding the Republic of China (ROC)-controlled Quemoy Island, situated just a few miles from mainland China. The conflict later expanded to include other nearby ROC-held islands such as Matsu and Dachen. Despite the United States initially viewing these islands as militarily insignificant, they were of vital importance to the ROC for any potential future campaign to reclaim mainland China. In response to the PLA's actions, the U.S. Congress passed the Formosa Resolution on January 24, 1955, authorizing the President to defend Taiwan and its offshore islands. 

The PLA's military activity culminated in the capture of Yijiangshan Island in January 1955, where 720 ROC troops were killed or wounded. This prompted the United States and the ROC to formalize the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty in December 1954, which allowed U.S. Navy support for evacuating Nationalist forces from vulnerable positions like the Dachen Islands. The crisis saw temporary de-escalation in March 1955 when the PLA ceased its shelling activities.

The First Taiwan Strait Crisis officially came to an end in April 1955 during the Bandung Conference, when Premier Zhou Enlai announced China's intention to negotiate with the United States. Subsequent ambassadorial-level discussions began in Geneva in August 1955, although the core issues underlying the conflict remained unaddressed, setting the stage for another crisis three years later.

The Second Taiwan Strait Crisis began on August 23, 1958, involving military air and naval engagements between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC). The PRC initiated artillery bombardments on the ROC-controlled islands of Kinmen (Quemoy) and the Matsu Islands, while the ROC retaliated by shelling Amoy on the mainland. The United States intervened by supplying fighter jets, anti-aircraft missiles, and amphibious assault ships to the ROC but stopped short of fulfilling Chiang Kai-shek's request to bomb mainland China. An informal ceasefire came into play when the PRC declared on October 25 that they would only shell Kinmen on odd-numbered days, allowing the ROC to resupply their military on the even-numbered days.

The crisis was significant as it led to high tensions and risked drawing the United States into a broader conflict, potentially even a nuclear one. The U.S. faced diplomatic challenges, including the risk of alienating key allies like France and Japan. One notable escalation occurred in June 1960 when President Eisenhower visited Taipei; the PRC responded by intensifying their bombardments, leading to casualties on both sides. However, after Eisenhower's visit, the situation returned to its prior state of uneasy tension.

The crisis eventually de-escalated on December 2, when the U.S. discreetly withdrew its additional naval assets from the Taiwan Strait, allowing the ROC Navy to resume its combat and escort duties. While the crisis was considered a status quo result, it led U.S. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles to conclude that such a situation should not be allowed to happen again. This conflict was followed by another crisis in the Taiwan Strait only in 1995-1996, but no other crisis involving the United States has occurred in the region since 1958.

In 1971, the government of the Republic of China (ROC) exited the United Nations just before the organization acknowledged the People's Republic of China (PRC) as the lawful representative of China's seat at the UN. While a dual representation proposal was on the table, Chiang Kai-shek, the leader of the ROC, insisted on keeping a seat on the UN Security Council, a condition the PRC would not agree to. Chiang articulated his stance in a notable speech, declaring "the sky is not big enough for two suns." Consequently, the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 2758 in October 1971, ousting "the representatives of Chiang Kai-shek" and thus the ROC, and designating the PRC as the official "China" within the UN. In 1979, the United States also shifted its diplomatic recognition from Taipei to Beijing.

The Ten Major Construction Projects were the national infrastructure projects during the 1970s in Taiwan. The government of Republic of China believed that the country lacked key utilities such as highways, seaports, airports and power plants. Moreover, Taiwan was experiencing significant effects from the 1973 oil crisis. Therefore, to upgrade the industry and the development of the country, the government planned to take on ten massive building projects. They were proposed by the Premier Chiang Ching-kuo, beginning in 1974, with a planned completion by 1979. There were six transportation projects, three industrial projects, and one power-plant construction project, which ultimately cost over NT$300 billion in total.

The Ten Projects:

1. North-South Freeway (National Highway No. 1)
2. Electrification of West Coast Line railway
3. North-Link Line railway
4. Chiang Kai-shek International Airport (later renamed Taoyuan International Airport)
5. Taichung Port
6. Su-ao Port
7. Large Shipyard (Kaohsiung Shipyard of China Shipbuilding Corporation)
8. Integrated steel mill (China Steel Corporation)
9. Oil refinery and industrial park (Kaohsiung refinery of CPC Corporation )
10. Nuclear power plant (Jinshan Nuclear Power Plant)

The Taiwan Relations Act (TRA) was enacted by the United States Congress in 1979 to govern unofficial but substantial relations between the U.S. and Taiwan, following the U.S.'s formal recognition of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The act came in the wake of the dissolution of the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty with the Republic of China (ROC), Taiwan's governing authority. Passed by both houses and signed by President Jimmy Carter, the TRA established the American Institute in Taiwan (AIT) as a nonprofit corporation to handle commercial, cultural, and other interactions without official diplomatic representation. The act retroactively took effect on January 1, 1979, and maintains that pre-1979 international agreements between the U.S. and ROC are still valid unless explicitly terminated.

The TRA provides a framework for military and defense-related cooperation. It doesn't guarantee U.S. military intervention if Taiwan is attacked by the PRC but mandates that the U.S. make available to Taiwan defense articles and services "in such quantity as may be necessary to enable Taiwan to maintain a sufficient self-defense capability." The Act emphasizes that any non-peaceful efforts to decide Taiwan's future would be of "grave concern" to the U.S., and requires the U.S. to have the capacity to resist any force jeopardizing Taiwan’s security, social, or economic system. 

Over the years, despite the demands from the PRC and the U.S.'s One-China policy, successive U.S. administrations have continued arms sales to Taiwan under the provisions of the TRA. The act serves as a foundational document outlining U.S. policy towards Taiwan, incorporating a stance of "strategic ambiguity" aimed at dissuading both Taiwan from declaring independence and the PRC from forcibly unifying Taiwan with mainland China.

In 1986, Morris Chang was invited by Li Kwoh-ting, representing Taiwan's Executive Yuan, to head the Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI) with the goal of bolstering Taiwan's semiconductor industry. At the time, the high costs and risks associated with the semiconductor sector made it challenging to find investors. Eventually, Philips agreed to a joint venture, contributing $58 million and technology transfers for a 27.5% stake in the newly formed Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC). The Taiwanese government provided 48% of the startup capital, while the rest came from wealthy Taiwanese families, making TSMC a quasi-state project from its inception.

TSMC has since undergone significant growth, albeit with fluctuations due to market demand. In 2011, the company aimed to increase its research and development spending by almost 39% to NT$50 billion to counter rising competition. It also planned to expand its manufacturing capabilities by 30% to meet robust market demand. Subsequent years saw the company further ramp up its capital investments, including a board-approved $568 million in 2014 to increase manufacturing capabilities and an additional $3.05 billion later that year.

Today, TSMC is a Taiwanese multinational semiconductor manufacturing and design firm, and it holds the distinction of being the world's first dedicated semiconductor foundry. It is the most valuable semiconductor company globally and the largest company in Taiwan. Although it has a majority of foreign investors, the central government of Taiwan remains the largest shareholder. TSMC continues to be a leader in its field, with its headquarters and primary operations situated in the Hsinchu Science Park in Hsinchu, Taiwan.

The Wild Lily Student Movement was a six-day demonstration in March 1990 aimed at promoting democracy in Taiwan. Initiated by students from National Taiwan University, the sit-in took place at Memorial Square in Taipei (later renamed Liberty Square in honor of the movement) and saw participation swell to 22,000 demonstrators. The protesters, adorned with white Formosa lilies as a symbol of democracy, demanded direct elections for Taiwan's president and vice president, as well as new popular elections for all representatives in the National Assembly. The demonstration coincided with the inauguration of Lee Teng-hui, who had been elected under the one-party rule system of the Kuomintang.

On the first day of his term, President Lee Teng-hui met with fifty student representatives and expressed his support for their democratic aspirations, promising to initiate democratic reforms that summer. This student-led movement marked a significant turning point in Taiwan's political landscape, setting the stage for democratic reforms. Six years after the movement, Lee became Taiwan’s first popularly elected leader in an election with over 95% voter turnout. Subsequent commemorations of the movement continue to be held every March 21st, and there have been calls to move Taiwan's Youth Day to this date in recognition of the students' contributions to democracy.

The impact of the Wild Lily Student Movement is particularly striking when contrasted with the Chinese government's response to the Tiananmen Square protests, which took place just a year before the Taiwanese movement. Chen Shui-bian, Lee's successor, pointed out the stark difference in the two governments' handling of student protests. While the Tiananmen protests ended in a violent crackdown, the Taiwanese movement led to tangible democratic reforms, including the National Assembly voting to dissolve itself in 2005.

The presidential elections held in Taiwan on March 23, 1996, marked a historic milestone as the country's first direct presidential elections. Previously, the president and vice president were selected by deputies of the National Assembly. Lee Teng-hui, the incumbent and candidate of the ruling Kuomintang, won the election with 54% of the votes. His victory came in spite of attempts by the People's Republic of China (PRC) to intimidate Taiwanese voters through missile tests, a tactic that ultimately failed. The voter turnout was a significant 76.0%.

In the run-up to the elections, the People's Liberation Army of China fired ballistic missiles into waters near Taiwanese ports of Keelung and Kaohsiung between March 8 and March 15. The action was meant to deter Taiwanese voters from supporting Lee and his running mate, Peng, whom Beijing accused of seeking to "divide the motherland." Other political figures, like Chen Li-an, even warned that voting for Lee would be choosing war. The crisis was defused when the United States deployed two aircraft carrier battle groups near Taiwan.

The election not only represented a win for Lee but also showcased him as a strong leader capable of standing up to the PRC. The incident swayed many voters, including those from southern Taiwan who favored independence, to cast their ballots for Lee. According to the United Daily News, a Taipei newspaper, up to 14 to 15% of Lee's 54% vote share was contributed by supporters of the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), demonstrating the broad appeal he had garnered due to his handling of the crisis.

The 2000 presidential election marked the end of the Kuomintang (KMT) rule. DPP candidate Chen Shui-bian won a three-way race that saw the Pan-Blue vote split by independent James Soong (formerly of the Kuomintang) and Kuomintang candidate Lien Chan. Chen garnered 39% of the vote.

The Anti-Secession Law was enacted by the People's Republic of China's National People's Congress on March 14, 2005, and went into immediate effect. The law, formalized by President Hu Jintao, consists of ten articles and notably makes it clear that China may use military force against Taiwan if peaceful means of preventing Taiwanese independence are exhausted. While the law doesn't explicitly define "China" as the People's Republic of China, it is unique for being the only law passed by the National People's Congress without the prefix "People's Republic of China" or a designation as a "Decision/Resolution." The law led to significant protests in Taiwan, with hundreds of thousands taking to the streets of Taipei on March 26, 2005, to express their discontent. While some political dialogue between China and Taiwan has occurred since the law's passage, cross-strait relations remain fraught with uncertainty.

The Sunflower Student Movement in Taiwan unfolded between March 18 and April 10, 2014, sparked by the passage of the Cross-Strait Service Trade Agreement (CSSTA) with China by the ruling Kuomintang (KMT) party without thorough review. The protesters, mainly students and civic groups, occupied the Legislative Yuan and later the Executive Yuan, opposing the trade pact that they believed would harm Taiwan’s economy and increase its vulnerability to political pressure from China. Their initial demands for a clause-by-clause review of the agreement eventually evolved into calls for its complete rejection, the establishment of legislation for close monitoring of future agreements with China, and citizen-led discussions on constitutional amendments.

Despite some openness from the KMT to review the agreement line-by-line, the party rejected returning it for committee review. The opposition Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) also rejected the KMT's later offer to form a joint review committee, insisting that all cross-strait agreements should be reviewed, citing mainstream public opinion. The DPP’s proposal was, in turn, rejected by the KMT. A rally on March 30 saw hundreds of thousands, according to organizers, gather to support the Sunflower Movement, while pro-China activists and groups also held rallies in opposition.

Legislative Speaker Wang Jin-pyng eventually promised to postpone any review of the trade pact until legislation was in place for monitoring all cross-strait agreements, leading protesters to announce they would vacate the occupied premises on April 10. While the KMT expressed discontent over Wang’s unilateral decision, the DPP supported it. President Ma Ying-jeou, who was not privy to Wang’s actions beforehand, continued to call for the early passage of the trade pact, labeling the concessions as unrealistic. The protesters eventually did vacate the legislature, promising to continue their movement in broader Taiwanese society, and cleaned the legislative chamber before departing.

The presidential elections in Taiwan took place on January 11, 2020, alongside the 10th Legislative Yuan election. Incumbent President Tsai Ing-wen and her running mate, former premier Lai Ching-te, both from the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), emerged victorious. They defeated Kaohsiung mayor Han Kuo-yu of the Kuomintang (KMT) and his running mate Chang San-cheng, as well as third-party candidate James Soong. The win came after Tsai had resigned from her party's chairmanship following major losses in the 2018 local elections and had faced a primary challenge from Lai Ching-te. On the KMT side, Han Kuo-yu defeated former presidential candidate Eric Chu and Foxconn CEO Terry Gou in a competitive primary.

The campaign revolved around both domestic issues like labor reform and economic management as well as Cross-Strait relations. Han criticized Tsai for perceived failures in various policy areas, but Tsai's firm stance against Beijing's pressures for unification resonated with voters. This was particularly true amid the widely followed anti-extradition protests in Hong Kong. The election had a high voter turnout of 74.9%, the highest in nationwide elections since 2008. Tsai received a record-breaking 8.17 million votes, or 57.1% of the popular vote, marking the highest vote share for a DPP candidate in presidential elections.

The DPP managed to reverse the KMT's fortunes in major metropolitan areas, particularly in Kaohsiung. Meanwhile, the KMT continued to show strength in certain eastern regions and off-island constituencies. Tsai Ing-wen and Lai Ching-te were inaugurated on May 20, 2020, marking the beginning of their term.