Joseon Dynasty

By the late 14th century, the nearly 500-year-old Goryeo established in 918 was tottering, its foundations collapsing from years of war spilled over from the disintegrating Yuan dynasty. Following the emergence of the Ming dynasty, the royal court in Goryeo split into two conflicting factions, one supporting the Ming and the other standing by the Yuan. In 1388, a Ming messenger came to Goryeo to demand that territories of the former Ssangseong Prefectures be handed over to Ming China. The tract of land was taken by Mongol forces during the invasion of Korea, but had been reclaimed by Goryeo in 1356 as the Yuan dynasty weakened. The act caused an uproar among the Goryeo court, and General Choe Yeong seized the chance to argue for an invasion of the Ming-controlled Liaodong Peninsula.

General Yi Seong-gye was chosen to lead the attack; he revolted, swept back to the capital Gaegyeong (present-day Kaesong) and initiated a coup d'état, overthrowing King U in favor of his son, Chang of Goryeo (1388). He later killed King U and his son after a failed restoration and forcibly placed a royal named Wang Yo on the throne (he became King Gongyang of Goryeo). In 1392, Yi eliminated Jeong Mong-ju, highly respected leader of a group loyal to Goryeo dynasty, and dethroned King Gongyang, exiling him to Wonju, and he ascended the throne himself. The Goryeo kingdom had come to an end after 474 years of rule.

In the beginning of his reign, Yi Seong-gye, now ruler of Korea, intended to continue to use of the name Goryeo for the country he ruled and simply change the royal line of descent to his own, thus maintaining the façade of continuing the 500-year-old Goryeo tradition. After numerous threats of mutiny from the drastically weakened but still influential Gwonmun nobles, who continued to swear allegiance to the remnants of the Goryeo and to the now-demoted Wang clan, the consensus in the reformed court was that a new dynastic title was needed to signify the change. In naming the new kingdom, Taejo contemplated two possibilities – "Hwaryeong" (his place of birth) and "Joseon". After much internal deliberation, as well as endorsement by the neighboring Ming dynasty's emperor, Taejo declared the name of the kingdom to be Joseon, a tribute to the ancient Korean state of Gojoseon.

Taejo was the founder and first ruler of the Joseon Dynasty in Korea, reigning from 1392 to 1398. Born Yi Seong-gye, he came to power by overthrowing the Goryeo Dynasty. His reign marked the end of Goryeo's 475-year rule and the beginning of Joseon, which he officially established in 1393.

Taejo's reign was characterized by efforts to maintain continuity with the past. He retained many institutions and officials from the Goryeo era and prioritized improving foreign relations. He successfully re-established diplomatic ties with Japan and improved relations with Ming China, refusing to respond to raids from Chinese bandits and sending envoys to inform the Ming court of the dynastic change. Envoys were also sent to Japan, rekindling amicable connections, and he received envoys from the Ryūkyū Kingdom and Siam.

In 1394, Taejo established the new capital at Hanseong, present-day Seoul. However, his reign was marred by familial strife regarding the succession to the throne. Despite Yi Bang-won, Taejo's fifth son, contributing significantly to his father's rise to power, he was overlooked as the heir due to Taejo's advisors favoring other sons. This led to the 'First Strife of Princes' in 1398, where Yi Bang-won revolted, killing key figures opposing him, including Jeong Do-jeon and Queen Sindeok's sons.

Shocked by the violence among his sons and grieving the loss of his second wife, Queen Sindeok, Taejo abdicated in favor of his second son, Yi Bang-gwa, who became King Jeongjong. Taejo retired to Hamhung Royal Villa, distancing himself from Yi Bang-won (later King Taejong). Contrary to popular belief, Taejo did not execute emissaries from Yi Bang-won; they died coincidentally in revolts.

In 1400, King Jeongjong named Yi Bang-won as the heir and abdicated, leading to Yi Bang-won's ascension as King Taejong. Taejo's reign, though short, was pivotal in establishing the Joseon Dynasty and laying the groundwork for subsequent transformations in Korean history.

In naming the new dynasty, Taejo contemplated two possibilities - "Hwaryeong" and "Joseon". After much internal deliberation, as well as endorsement by the neighboring Ming dynasty's emperor, Taejo declared the name of the kingdom to be Joseon, a tribute to the ancient Korean state of Gojoseon. He also moved the capital to Hanyang from Kaesong.

Jeongjong, the second ruler of the Joseon dynasty, was born in 1357 as the second son of Yi Seong-gye (later King Taejo) and his first wife, Lady Han. A competent military officer, Jeongjong participated in battles alongside his father during the decline of the Goryeo dynasty. Upon his father's ascension to the throne in 1392, Jeongjong was made a prince.

King Taejo had two wives, with Jeongjong being one of the six sons from his first marriage. Taejo's favoritism towards his youngest son from his second wife, Lady Gang, and the backing of this son by Chief State Councillor Jeong Do-jeon, created resentment among Taejo's other sons.

The familial tensions culminated in 1398 when Taejo's fifth son, Yi Bang-won (later King Taejong), led a coup that resulted in the deaths of his two younger half-brothers and Jeong Do-jeon. After the coup, Yi Bang-won initially supported his elder brother Yi Bang-gwa (Jeongjong) for the throne. Taejo, distraught by the bloodshed, abdicated, leading to Jeongjong's ascension as the second ruler of Joseon.

During Jeongjong's reign, he moved the government back to Gaegyeong, the old Goryeo capital. In 1400, another conflict arose between Yi Bang-won and Jeongjong's elder brother, Yi Bang-gan. After Yi Bang-won's forces defeated Yi Bang-gan, who was subsequently exiled, Jeongjong, recognizing his limited power and Yi Bang-won's influence, appointed Yi Bang-won as crown prince and abdicated. Despite his reign being marked by family strife and bloodshed, Jeongjong was an able administrator.

King Taejong, the third ruler of the Joseon Dynasty, reigned from 1400 to 1418 and was a pivotal figure in Korean history. He was the fifth son of King Taejo, the dynasty's founder, and the father of Sejong the Great. Taejong implemented significant military, administrative, and legal reforms. One of his first actions as king was to abolish private armies held by aristocrats, consolidating military power under the central government. This move curbed the potential for large-scale revolts by the upper class and bolstered the national army.

He also revised land taxation laws, leading to increased national wealth by uncovering previously hidden land. Taejong established a strong central government, replacing the Dopyeong Assembly with the State Council. He decreed that all decisions by the State Council required the king's approval, thus centralizing royal authority. Taejong created the Sinmun Office to address grievances against officials or aristocrats and placed a large drum outside the palace for commoners to request an audience for important matters. Taejong promoted Confucianism over Buddhism, leading to the decline of the latter's influence and the closure of many temples.

His foreign policy was aggressive, attacking Jurchens in the north and Japanese pirates in the south. Taejong initiated the Ōei Invasion of Tsushima Island in 1419. He introduced the hopae system, an early form of identification, to control population movement. Taejong advanced metal movable type printing technology, ordering the creation of 100,000 pieces of metal type and two complete fonts, predating Gutenberg. He encouraged publications, commerce, education, and granted independence to the Uigeumbu, a judicial body.

In 1418, Taejong abdicated in favor of his son Yi Do (Sejong the Great) but continued to exert influence over state affairs. He executed or exiled supporters who helped him ascend to the throne and limited the influence of in-laws and powerful clans, including executing the brothers of his wife, Queen Wongyeong. Taejong died in 1422 at Sugang Palace and was buried with Queen Wongyeong at Heonneung in Seoul. His reign, marked by effective governance and harsh measures against rivals, significantly contributed to Joseon's stability and prosperity, setting a firm foundation for his successor's successful reign.

The founder of the dynasty, Taejong made several attempts to bring upon improvements in the prevailing monetary system but they were not a success initially. The attempts include issuing Korean paper currency and issuing coins instead of importing them from China. The coins issued in Korean being unsuccessful led to the issuance of a standardized note made of black mulberry bark called Jeohwa (저화/楮貨), that was used in place of coins. Bronze coins were not cast again until the Year 1423 during the reign of King Sejong. These coins had the inscription 朝鮮通寶 (Chosun Tongbo "Chosun currency"). The coins that were minted in the 17th century came out to be a success at last and as a result, 24 mints were established throughout Korea. Coinage formed a major part of the exchange system after this time.

Sejong the Great, the fourth king of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea, reigned from 1418 to 1450 and is renowned as one of Korea’s most illustrious rulers. His reign was marked by a combination of innovative cultural, social, and technological advancements, which had a profound and lasting impact on Korean history.

Sejong's most significant achievement is the creation of Hangul, the Korean alphabet, in 1443. This revolutionary development made literacy more accessible to the common people, breaking barriers imposed by the complex Classical Chinese script, which was the written language of the elite. Hangul's introduction significantly impacted Korean culture and identity.

Under Sejong's leadership, Joseon saw advancements in science and technology. He supported the development of various scientific instruments, including water clocks and sundials, and improved meteorological observation methods. His interest in astronomy led to advancements in the field, and his support for agricultural science helped improve farming techniques and crop yields.

Sejong's reign was also marked by military strength. He strengthened national defenses and developed advanced weapons, including the Geobukseon (turtle ships) and Hwacha (a type of multiple rocket launcher). These innovations played a crucial role in defending Korea against external threats.

Culturally, Sejong's reign is considered a golden age. He fostered the arts and literature, promoting the study and development of Korean music, poetry, and philosophy. His policies encouraged intellectual and cultural activities, leading to a flourishing of Confucian scholarship and the establishment of the Hall of Worthies (Jiphyeonjeon), a royal research institute.

Administratively, Sejong implemented reforms that improved the lives of common people. He reformed the tax system, improved the law codes, and restructured the government to make it more efficient and responsive to the needs of his subjects.

Sejong's reign was characterized by diplomacy and maintained peaceful relations with neighboring states. He navigated complex international relations with tact and foresight, balancing Joseon's place among the regional powers. Upon his death in 1450, Sejong left a legacy of enlightenment and progress. His contributions to Korean culture, science, and governance have cemented his status as one of Korea's greatest historical figures, earning him the epithet "The Great."

Danjong, born Yi Hong-wi, was the sixth king of the Joseon Dynasty in Korea, ascending to the throne in 1452 at the age of 12 following the death of his father, King Munjong. His reign, however, was short-lived and tumultuous, largely due to his young age and the political intrigue that surrounded his rule. Upon his accession, the actual governance fell to Chief State Councillor Hwangbo In and Left State Councillor General Kim Jong-seo. However, this government was overthrown in a coup d'état in 1453 by Danjong's uncle, Grand Prince Suyang, who later became King Sejo. The coup resulted in the deaths of Hwangbo In and Kim Jong-seo.

The political tension escalated in 1456 when six court officials plotted to restore Danjong to the throne. The plot was foiled, and the conspirators were executed. Subsequently, Danjong was demoted to Prince Nosan and exiled to Yeongwol, while his wife lost her queen dowager status. Initially, Sejo showed reluctance to execute Danjong, but as he perceived his nephew as a persistent threat, he ultimately ordered Danjong's death in 1457. Danjong's tragic end marked a significant moment of political ruthlessness in the Joseon Dynasty.

Sejo of Joseon, born Grand Prince Suyang, became the seventh king of Joseon following a tumultuous series of events after the death of King Sejong in 1450. His rise to power involved strategic political maneuvering and the use of force. After Sejong's death, the throne passed to Suyang's ill brother, King Munjong, who died in 1452. Munjong's young son, Yi Hong-wi (later King Danjong), succeeded him but was too young to govern effectively. The government was initially controlled by Chief State Councillor Hwangbo In and Left State Councillor General Kim Jong-seo, with Princess Gyeonghye acting as Danjong's guardian. Suyang, seeing an opportunity, staged a coup in 1453, killing Kim Jong-seo and his faction. This move allowed him to seize control of the government. He later arrested and executed his brother, Grand Prince Anpyeong, consolidating his power further.

In 1455, Suyang forced King Danjong to abdicate and declared himself the ruler, taking the name Sejo. His reign witnessed additional power struggles, including a plot by his younger brother, Grand Prince Geumsung, and several scholars to restore Danjong to the throne. Sejo responded by demoting Danjong from King Emeritus to Prince Nosan and later ordering his nephew's death.

Despite the violence associated with his ascent to power, Sejo was an effective ruler. He continued the centralization of royal power started by King Taejong, weakening the State Council and exerting greater control over government officials. He developed administrative systems for more accurate population counts and troop mobilization. His foreign policy was aggressive, notably against the Jurchens in the north.

Sejo also contributed to the cultural and intellectual life of Joseon. He encouraged the publication of works on history, economy, agriculture, and religion. He compiled several books, including Seokbosangjeol, a biography of Gautama Buddha. Sejo also championed Korean music in royal rituals, modifying compositions by his father, King Sejong. One of his significant contributions was compiling the Grand Code for State Administration, a foundational document for Korean constitutional law. Sejo died in 1468, and his second son, Yejong of Joseon, succeeded him. He was buried at Gwangneung in Namyangju, Gyeonggi Province, South Korea.

Seongjong, who became the ninth king of Joseon at the age of 12, initially saw his rule overseen by his grandmother Grand Royal Queen Dowager Jaseong, his biological mother Queen Insu, and his aunt Queen Dowager Inhye. In 1476, Seongjong began to govern independently. His reign, starting in 1469, was a period of relative stability and prosperity, building upon the foundations laid by his predecessors Taejong, Sejong, and Sejo. Seongjong was known for his effective leadership and administrative skills. One of his notable achievements was the completion and implementation of the Grand Code for State Administration, initiated by his grandfather.

Seongjong's reign was also marked by significant developments in the royal court's structure. He expanded the Office of Special Advisors, strengthening the role of this advisory council which also functioned as a royal library and research institute. Additionally, he reinforced the Three Offices – the Office of the Inspector General, the Office of Censors, and the Office of Special Advisors – to ensure checks and balances within the court. In his efforts to create an effective administration, Seongjong appointed skilled administrators without bias towards their political affiliations, bringing liberal scholars to court. His reign saw various innovations and the publication of books on geography, social etiquette, and other subjects beneficial to the populace.

Seongjong's reign, however, wasn't without controversy. His decision to execute Lady Yun, one of his concubines whom he had elevated to queen, for her attempts to poison rivals, would later fuel the tyranny of his successor, Yeonsangun. Additionally, Seongjong enforced social policies such as the "Widow Remarriage Ban" in 1477, which prohibited the sons of remarried women from holding public office. This policy strengthened societal stigmas and had lasting social impacts.

In 1491, Seongjong launched a successful military campaign against the Jurchens on the northern border, continuing Joseon's militaristic stance in the region. Seongjong died in January 1495 and was succeeded by his son, Yi Yung, who became Yeonsangun of Joseon. Seongjong's tomb, Seonneung, is located in Seoul, where he was later joined by his third wife, Queen Jeonghyeon.

Yeonsangun of Joseon, born Yi Yung on November 23, 1476, was the tenth ruler of the Joseon dynasty in Korea, reigning from 1494 to 1506. His rule is often considered the most tyrannical in Korean history. Initially, Yeonsangun believed he was the son of Queen Jeonghyeon. After ascending to the throne in 1494, he began his reign effectively, focusing on national defense and aiding the poor. However, his violent tendencies surfaced early when he killed one of his tutors.

The turning point in his reign came when Yeonsangun discovered the truth about his biological mother. His efforts to posthumously restore her titles were opposed by government officials, leading to his growing resentment towards them. This resulted in the First Literati Purge in 1498, where many officials of the Sarim faction were executed following an accusation of treason against Gim Il-son and his followers.

In 1504, the Second Literati Purge occurred after Yeonsangun learned about his mother's death in detail. He brutally killed those he believed responsible, including royal concubines and officials, and desecrated the grave of Han Myeong-hoe. Yeonsangun's punishments extended to anyone present in the court during his mother's mistreatment.

Yeonsangun's rule further deteriorated as he converted educational and religious institutions into personal pleasure grounds, forcibly gathered young girls for entertainment, and evicted thousands to build hunting grounds. His actions led to widespread mockery and opposition. In response, he banned the use of Hangul and attempted to dismantle Buddhism in Joseon. His oppressive policies extended to court officials, leading to the abolition of critical government offices. His brutal treatment of dissenters, including Chief Eunuch Gim Cheo-sun, further showcased his tyranny.

In September 1506, a coup led by a group of officials overthrew Yeonsangun, replacing him with his half-brother, Grand Prince Jinseong. Yeonsangun was demoted to Prince Yeonsan and exiled to Ganghwa Island, where he died two months later. His concubine Jang Nok-su, who had supported his misrule, was executed, and his young sons were forced to commit suicide. Yeonsangun's reign is remembered as a stark contrast to the more liberal era of his father and as a period of extreme despotism in Korean history.

Jungjong, the 11th king of the Joseon Dynasty, ascended to the throne in September 1506 following the deposition of his half-brother, Yeonsangun. His rise to power was dramatic; initially believing he was to be killed, Jungjong became king after being persuaded by his wife, Lady Shin (later Queen Dangyeong).

Early in his reign, Jungjong was under the influence of Chief State Councillor Hwangbo In and General Kim Jong-seo, as well as his sister Princess Gyeonghye, due to his young age. However, his rule was soon dominated by his uncle, Grand Prince Suyang (later King Sejo), who staged a coup in 1453, executing key government figures including Hwangbo In and Kim Jong-seo.

One of Jungjong's significant actions was embracing the reforms initiated by scholar Jo Gwang-jo, who aimed to eradicate the remnants of Yeonsangun's tyrannical rule. These reforms included reopening Sungkyunkwan (the royal university) and the Office of Censors. Jungjong began asserting his authority more freely after the deaths of the coup's main leaders. Jo Gwang-jo's reforms, based on Neo-Confucian ideals, promoted local autonomy, equitable land distribution, and the recruitment of talented individuals regardless of social status. These reforms, however, faced opposition from conservative nobles.

In 1519, a factional conflict led to Jo Gwang-jo's execution and the abrupt end of his reform programs in what is known as the Third Literati Purge (Gimyo Sahwa). Following this, Jungjong's reign was overshadowed by power struggles among various conservative factions, often influenced by the king's wives and concubines. The internal conflicts at court and the weakening of royal authority led to increased challenges from foreign powers, including Japanese pirates and Jurchen raids on the northern frontier. Jungjong died on 29 November 1544 and was succeeded by his eldest legitimate son, Crown Prince Yi Ho (Injong), who died shortly after without issue. The throne then passed to Jungjong's younger half-brother, Grand Prince Gyeongwon (Myeongjong).

During King Myeongjong's reign in Joseon, two major political factions vied for power: the Greater Yun, led by Yun Im, and the Lesser Yun, headed by Yun Won-hyeong and Yun Won-ro. Though related, these factions engaged in a bitter struggle for dominance. Initially, in 1544, the Greater Yun faction rose to prominence under Yun Im's leadership when Injong ascended the throne. However, their failure to eliminate the opposition, safeguarded by Queen Munjeong, led to their decline.

After King Injong's death in 1545, the Lesser Yun faction, supported by Queen Munjeong, gained the upper hand. They orchestrated the Fourth Literati Purge in 1545, resulting in the execution of Yun Im and many of his followers, significantly weakening the Greater Yun faction. Yun Won-hyeong's rise to power within the Lesser Yun faction was marked by further political purges. In 1546, he impeached and executed his brother Yun Won-ro and consolidated his power, eventually becoming the Chief State Councilor in 1563. Despite his brutal rule, Queen Munjeong effectively administered the kingdom, redistributing land to the commoners.

The death of Queen Munjeong in 1565 was a turning point. Myeongjong, then at the age of 20, began to assert his rule. He executed Yun Won-hyeong and his second wife, Jeong Nan-jeong, who had gained significant influence through her close ties to the queen. Yun Won-hyeong's reign had been marked by corruption and governmental instability, leading to rampant threats from Jurchens, Japanese forces, and internal rebellions. Myeongjong attempted government reforms by reinstating exiled Sarim scholars. However, he passed away in 1567 without a male heir. His half-nephew, Yi Gyun (later King Seonjo), was adopted by Queen Dowager Uiseong to succeed him.

King Seonjo of Joseon, who reigned from 1567 to 1608, focused on improving the lives of common people and rebuilding the nation after the corruption and chaos of Yeonsangun and Jungjong's reigns. He restored the reputations of scholars unjustly executed in previous purges and denounced corrupt aristocrats. Seonjo reformed the civil service examination system to include politics and history, gaining respect from the populace and enjoying a brief period of peace.

However, King Seonjo's reign saw the emergence of significant political divisions, leading to the East-West feud between 1575 and 1592. This division originated from the scholars he appointed, who split into two factions: the conservative Western Faction led by Sim Ui-gyeom and the reform-minded Eastern Faction led by Kim Hyowon. The Western Faction initially gained favor due to Sim's royal connections and support from wealthy nobles. However, their hesitance on reforms led to the rise of the Eastern Faction. This faction further split into the Northern and Southern factions, with differing degrees of reformist agendas.

These political divisions weakened the nation, particularly affecting military preparedness. Despite warnings from neutral scholars like Yi I about potential threats from the Jurchens and Japanese, the factions failed to strengthen the military, believing in the continuation of peace. This lack of preparedness had dire consequences, as it coincided with the expansionist ambitions of the Jurchens and the Japanese, eventually leading to the devastating Seven-Year War and the rise of the Qing dynasty in China.

King Seonjo faced challenges from the Jurchens in the north and Japanese leaders like Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu in the south. The Japanese threat escalated after Hideyoshi unified Japan. Despite the growing danger, factional disputes in the Joseon court prevented a unified response. Delegates sent to assess Hideyoshi's intentions returned with conflicting reports, further fueling controversy and confusion. The Easterners' dominance in the government led to the dismissal of warnings about Japanese military preparations. This factional infighting, coupled with the 1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, significantly contributed to Joseon's unpreparedness for the impending Japanese invasions.

The Imjin War, also known as the Japanese invasions of Korea, occurred between 1592 and 1598, consisting of two major invasions. The conflict was initiated by Toyotomi Hideyoshi of Japan, aiming to conquer Korea (then under the Joseon dynasty) and China (under the Ming dynasty). Japan initially captured large areas of Korea, but faced setbacks due to Ming reinforcements and effective naval disruptions by the Joseon navy. This led to a stalemate, with guerrilla warfare by Korean civilian militias and supply issues affecting both sides.

The first invasion ended in 1596, followed by unsuccessful peace talks. Japan launched a second invasion in 1597, following a similar pattern: initial successes but eventual stalemate in southern Korea. The death of Toyotomi Hideyoshi in 1598, combined with logistical challenges and naval pressure from the Joseon, prompted the Japanese withdrawal and subsequent peace negotiations. These invasions were significant in scale, involving over 300,000 Japanese troops, and were the largest seaborne invasions until the Normandy landings during World War II.

Before his death, King Seonjo named Prince Gwanghae as his successor. However, Lyu Young-gyong of the Lesser Northerners faction concealed the royal succession document and planned to install Grand Prince Yeongchang as king. This plot was discovered by Jeong In-hong of the Great Northerners faction, leading to Lyu's execution and Yeongchang's arrest and subsequent execution.

As king, Gwanghae sought to unify various political factions in his court, but faced opposition from the Greater Northerners, including Yi I-cheom and Jeong In-hong. This faction systematically removed members of other factions, particularly the Lesser Northerners. In 1613, they targeted Grand Prince Yeongchang and his grandfather Kim Je-nam, both of whom were executed. Queen Inmok, Yeongchang's mother, was stripped of her title and imprisoned in 1618. Gwanghae, despite being the official head of the government, was powerless to intervene.

Gwanghae was a talented and pragmatic ruler, focusing on rebuilding the country. He sponsored the restoration of documents, revised land ordinances, redistributed land to the people, and ordered the rebuilding of Changdeok Palace and other palaces. He also reintroduced the hopae identification system. In foreign policy, Gwanghae sought to balance relations between the Ming Empire and the Manchus, sending troops to aid the Ming against the Manchus but negotiating peace with the Manchus after their victory. He reopened trade with Japan in 1609 and restored diplomatic relations in 1617.

Domestically, Gwanghaegun implemented the Daedong law for easier tax payment in Gyeonggi Province, encouraged publishing, and oversaw the writing of important works like the medical book Dongui Bogam. Tobacco was introduced to Korea during his reign and became popular among the aristocracy.

Gwanghaegun's reign ended with his dethronement by the Westerners faction in a coup led by Kim Yu on April 11, 1623. He was initially confined on Ganghwa Island and later on Jeju Island, where he died in 1641. Unlike other Joseon rulers, he does not have a royal mausoleum, and his remains are buried in a humble site in Namyangju, Gyeonggi Province. His successor, King Injo, implemented pro-Ming and anti-Manchu policies, leading to two Manchu invasions.

In 1623, the ultra-conservative Westerners faction, led by Kim Ja-jeom, Kim Ryu, Yi Gwi, and Yi Gwal, orchestrated a coup that ousted King Gwanghaegun and sent him into exile on Jeju Island. This coup resulted in the demise of Jeong In-hong and Yi Yicheom, and the Westerners swiftly supplanted the Greater Northerners as the dominant political faction. They installed Injo as the new King of Joseon. However, King Injo's rule was largely nominal, as the Westerners, who had orchestrated the coup, held most of the power.

In 1624, Yi Gwal, feeling underappreciated for his role in the coup, rebelled against King Injo. Assigned as a military commander to the northern front to combat the Manchus, Yi Gwal perceived that other coup leaders were receiving greater rewards. He led an army of 12,000 troops, including 100 Japanese soldiers who had defected to Joseon, and marched to the capital, Hanseong. In the ensuing Battle of Jeotan, Yi Gwal's forces defeated the army led by General Jang Man, forcing Injo to flee to Gongju and allowing the rebels to seize Hanseong.

Yi Gwal then enthroned Prince Heungan as a puppet king on February 11, 1624. However, this rebellion was short-lived. General Jang Man returned with additional troops and overcame Yi Gwal's forces. Hanseong was recaptured, and Yi Gwal was killed by his own bodyguard, marking the end of the uprising. This rebellion highlighted the fragility of royal authority in Joseon and underscored the increasing power of the aristocracy. The economic recovery that had begun under Gwanghaegun's administration was halted, plunging Korea into a prolonged period of economic hardship.

The Later Jin invasion of Joseon in 1627, led by Prince Amin, was a significant event in East Asian history. This invasion occurred as a retaliation against the Joseon kingdom for its support of the Ming dynasty against the Jurchens in the Battle of Sarhū in 1619. Political changes in Joseon, such as the deposition of King Gwanghaegun and the installation of King Injo, coupled with internal strife and anti-Jurchen sentiment, influenced the decision to sever ties with the Later Jin. The invasion began in January 1627 with a 30,000-strong Jurchen army under the leadership of Amin, Jirgalang, Ajige, and Yoto. Despite fierce resistance at the border, key locations like Uiju, Anju, and Pyongyang quickly fell to the invaders. The Ming dynasty sent aid to Joseon, but it was insufficient to stop the Jurchen advance.

The invasion culminated in a peace agreement on Ganghwa Island, marking a significant shift in the regional power dynamic. The terms of the treaty required Joseon to abandon the Ming era name Tianqi and offer hostages, while promising non-violation of territories between Jin and Joseon. Despite these terms, Joseon continued to maintain covert relations with the Ming dynasty, leading to dissatisfaction from the Jin leadership. The Jin invasion, while successful, highlighted the delicate balance of power and the complex diplomatic relationships in East Asia at the time.

The aftermath of the war had lasting impacts on the region. The Later Jin, facing economic hardships, forced Joseon to open markets and transfer the suzerainty of the Warka tribe to Jin, along with demanding substantial tributes. This imposition created a tense and uncomfortable relationship between Joseon and Later Jin, with deep-seated resentment in Joseon towards the Jurchens. The events set the stage for further conflict, eventually leading to the Qing invasion of Joseon in 1636, and marked the end of open peace negotiations between the Ming dynasty and the Jurchens.

The Qing invasion of Joseon occurred in the winter of 1636 when the newly established Manchu-led Qing dynasty invaded the Joseon dynasty, establishing its status as the center of the Imperial Chinese Tributary System and formally severing Joseon's relationship with the Ming dynasty. The invasion was preceded by the Later Jin invasion of Joseon in 1627.

After invasions from Japan and Manchuria, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. Externally, Joseon became increasingly isolationist. Its rulers sought to limit contact with foreign countries.

In 1627, King Injo's hardline policy against the Later Jin dynasty led to war with Joseon Korea. In 1636, after the Later Jin became the Qing dynasty, they defeated Joseon. King Injo was forced to pledge loyalty to the Qing emperor, Hong Taiji, and signed a treaty at Samjeondo, which included sending his sons, Crown Prince Sohyeon and Hyojong, to China as captives. During his exile, Hyojong defended his brother Sohyeon from Qing threats and participated in battles against the Ming loyalists and other groups to protect Sohyeon, who was Joseon's official heir and lacked military experience. Hyojong's interactions with Europeans in China influenced his views on the need for technological and military advancement in Joseon. He harbored resentment against the Qing for their role in the 1636 war and planned northern campaigns against them as revenge.

In 1645, Crown Prince Sohyeon returned to Joseon to succeed Injo and govern the nation. However, conflicts with Injo, particularly over Sohyeon's openness to European culture and views on Qing diplomacy, led to tension. Sohyeon died under mysterious circumstances, and his wife was executed when she sought the truth behind his death. Injo bypassed Sohyeon's son and selected Grand Prince Bong Rim (Hyojong) as his successor. Upon becoming king in 1649, Hyojong initiated military reforms and expansion. He removed corrupt officials like Kim Ja-jeom and summoned supporters of war against the Qing, including Song Si-yeol and Kim Sang-heon. His military efforts included building fortresses along the Yalu River and adopting new technologies, like muskets, with the help of Dutch sailors.

Despite these preparations, Hyojong's planned northern campaigns against the Qing never materialized. The Qing dynasty had grown stronger, assimilating the vast Han army. However, the reformed Joseon military proved effective in 1654 and 1658, aiding the Qing against Russian invasions in battles that demonstrated the stability of the Joseon army. Hyojong also focused on agricultural development and continued reconstruction efforts started by Gwanghaegun. Despite these achievements, he faced immense stress from various internal and external challenges and died at 39 in 1659 from complications related to diabetes and a temporal artery injury. While his northern conquest plans remained unfulfilled, Hyojong is remembered as a dedicated ruler who strove to strengthen and protect Joseon.

The Yesong Controversy was a significant political conflict during the Joseon Dynasty, centered around the funeral rites for King Hyojong, who died in 1659. The debate involved the Westerners faction, led by Song Si-yeol, and the Southerners faction, led by Heo Jeok, and revolved around the duration Queen Jangryeol, King Injo's second wife, should observe mourning for Hyojong. The Westerners argued for a one-year mourning period, customary for a second stepson, while the Southerners advocated for a three-year period, reflecting Hyojong's status as King Injo's successor. King Hyeonjong, Hyojong's successor, ultimately sided with the Westerners, enforcing a one-year mourning period. However, he retained Heo Jeok as Prime Minister to maintain balance and prevent the Westerners from overpowering royal authority. This decision temporarily appeased both factions, but the underlying tensions remained.

The issue resurfaced with the death of Queen Inseon in 1674. The Southerners and the Westerners disagreed again on the mourning period, this time for Queen Jaeui. Hyeonjong sided with the Southerners, leading to their rise as the major political faction. The controversy continued even after Hyeonjong's death in 1675 and was only settled by his successor, King Sukjong, who banned further debate on the matter. The dispute affected the official history of Hyeonjong's era, initially written by the Southerners but later revised by Westerners.

During Hyeonjong's reign, notable events included the departure of Dutchman Hendrick Hamel from Korea in 1666. Hamel's writings about his experiences in Korea introduced the Joseon Dynasty to European readers. Additionally, Korea suffered a severe famine in 1670-1671, causing widespread hardship. Hyeonjong abandoned Hyojong's ambitious plans for northern conquest, recognizing the Qing Dynasty's growing power. He continued military expansion and national reconstruction efforts and encouraged advancements in astronomy and printing. Hyeonjong also enacted laws to prohibit marriage between relatives and those with the same surnames. His reign ended with his death in 1674, and he was succeeded by his son, King Sukjong.

King Sukjong's reign in Joseon, spanning from 1674 to 1720, was marked by intense political strife between the Southern and Western factions, as well as significant reforms and cultural developments. In 1680, the Gyeongsin hwanguk saw the Southern faction leaders Heo Jeok and Yun Hyu accused of treason by the Western faction, leading to their execution and the faction's purge. The Western faction then split into the Noron (Old Learning) and Soron (New Learning) factions. A significant shift occurred when Sukjong deposed Queen Min (Queen Inhyeon) in favor of Consort Jang Hui-bin, sparking the Gisa Hwanguk incident. The Southern faction, backing Consort Jang and her son, regained power and executed key Western faction figures, including Song Si-yeol. In 1694, during the Gapsul Hwanguk incident, he shifted support back to the Western faction, demoting Consort Jang and reinstating Queen Min. Consort Jang was later executed. The struggle for the crown prince position between the Soron-backed Yi Yun (Consort Jang's son) and the Noron-supported Prince Yeoning (later Yeongjo of Joseon) continued.

Sukjong's reign saw notable administrative and economic reforms, including tax reform and a new currency system, promoting social mobility and regional development. In 1712, his government collaborated with Qing China to define the Joseon-Qing border along the Yalu and Tumen Rivers. He also fostered agricultural and cultural growth.

The question of succession remained unresolved at his death in 1720. Despite the absence of official records, it's believed that Sukjong named Prince Yeoning as Gyeongjong of Joseon's heir. This led to further factional purges in the following years. Sukjong's reign ended after 46 years. His era, despite marked by political turbulence, contributed significantly to Joseon's administrative and cultural landscape.

After King Sukjong's death in 1720, his son Yi Yun, known as Crown Prince Hwiso, ascended the throne as King Gyeongjong at the age of 31. During this period, the absence of a historiographer or recorder at King Sukjong's deathbed led to suspicions and factional conflicts between the Soron and Noron factions. King Gyeongjong's reign was plagued by ill health, which limited his ability to effectively govern. The Noron faction, recognizing his frailty, pressured for the appointment of his half-brother, Prince Yeoning (later King Yeongjo), as Crown Prince to manage state affairs. This appointment occurred just two months into Gyeongjong's reign in 1720.

There were allegations that Gyeongjong's health issues were due to an injury inflicted by his mother, Lady Jang, who was executed by poisoning in 1701. It was rumored that she had accidentally harmed Gyeongjong, leaving him sterile and unable to produce an heir. Gyeongjong's reign was further destabilized by intense factional power struggles, leading to significant political purges known as the Shinimsahwa. The Soron faction, which supported Gyeongjong, used the situation to their advantage, accusing the Noron faction of attempting a coup. This resulted in the removal of Noron members from office and the execution of several of their leaders.

Two major massacres marked Gyeongjong's reign: the Sinchuk-oksa and the Imin-oksa, collectively referred to as Sinim-sahwa. These incidents involved the Soron faction purging the Noron faction, who advocated for Prince Yeoning's involvement in state affairs due to Gyeongjong's health issues.

During his reign, King Gyeongjong initiated some reforms, such as the creation of small firearms modeled after Western weapons and reforms in land measurement in the southern regions of the country. King Gyeongjong's death in 1724 led to further speculation and controversy. Some members of the Soron faction suspected Prince Yeoning (Yeongjo) of being involved in Gyeongjong's death, considering the Norons' earlier attempts to elevate Yeoning to the throne.

King Yeongjo, the 21st monarch of the Joseon Dynasty, reigned for nearly 52 years, making him one of the longest-serving Korean monarchs. His reign, from 1724 to 1776, was characterized by efforts to stabilize the kingdom through reforms and to manage factional conflicts, particularly between the Noron and Soron factions.

Born to a low-born mother, Yeongjo faced resentment and political challenges due to his background. Despite this, he is celebrated for his commitment to Confucian values and governance. His reign saw significant advancements in Confucianization and economic recovery following the turmoil of the late 16th and early 17th centuries.

Yeongjo's Tangpyeong policy aimed to minimize factional fighting and foster national unity. He focused on tax reforms to alleviate burdens on commoners and enhance state finances. One of his most controversial and tragic decisions was the execution of his only son, Crown Prince Sado, in 1762, which remains a subject of debate and sorrow in Korean history.

The early years of Yeongjo's reign witnessed the Yi In-jwa Rebellion, instigated by a coalition of the Namin and excluded Soron factions. This uprising was quelled, and Yi In-jwa and his family were executed. Yeongjo's balanced approach to recruitment and administration aimed to reduce factional strife and promote efficient governance.

Yeongjo's reign saw the development of a vibrant economic and cultural life in Joseon. He supported the printing and distribution of important books in Hangul, including agricultural texts, which boosted literacy and education among commoners. Hanseong (present-day Seoul) flourished as a commercial hub, with increased mercantile activities and guild organizations. Traditional social divisions began to blur as yangban aristocrats and commoners alike engaged in commerce.

Yeongjo's administration also witnessed technological advances, such as the widespread use of the pluviometer and major public works projects. His policies upgraded the status of commoners, promoting social mobility and change.

Despite his achievements, Yeongjo's reign was not without its challenges. He faced health issues throughout his life and was the first monarch to act against the growing influence of Roman Catholicism in Korea, officially banning it in 1758. Yeongjo's reign ended with his death in 1776, leaving a legacy of a ruler who strove for a balanced and humane governance while navigating the complexities of court politics and social change.

King Jeongjo, the 22nd monarch of the Joseon Dynasty, reigned from 1776 to 1800 and was known for his efforts to reform and improve the nation. Emphasizing empathy with his people, Jeongjo responded proactively to natural disasters such as droughts and measles epidemics, providing public medicines and performing rainmaking rituals.

Politically, Jeongjo continued his grandfather King Yeongjo's Tangpyeong policy, aiming to reduce factionalism and honor his father, Crown Prince Sado. He declared himself as Sado's son upon ascending the throne and moved the court to Suwon to be closer to his father's grave, building the Hwaseong Fortress to guard the tomb.

Jeongjo's reign faced threats from internal factions, particularly the Noron faction. In 1776, he thwarted a military coup led by Noron members Hong Sang-beom and Hong Kye-neung. He executed the conspirators but failed to impeach Hong Guk-yeong, a key political figure, to prevent power concentration in a single family.

Jeongjo introduced Changyongyeong, a royal bodyguard unit, and recruited officers through competitive examinations, replacing the less trusted Naekeunwe. This move was part of his broader efforts to control national politics and promote progress.

Cultural and educational reforms were significant in Jeongjo's reign. He established Kyujanggak, a royal library, to enhance Joseon's cultural and political status and recruit capable officers. He also lifted restrictions on government positions, allowing individuals from various social statuses to serve.

Jeongjo was an avid supporter of humanities and Neo-Confucianism, collaborating with Silhak scholars like Jeong Yak-yong and Pak Ji-won. His reign saw the growth of Joseon's popular culture. He favored Soron and Namin factions over the dominant Noron faction to establish a balance of power and strengthen royal authority.

In 1791, Jeongjo enacted the Shinhae Tonggong (free trade law), allowing open market sales and abolishing the Gumnanjeonguoun law, which had restricted market participation to certain merchant groups. This move aimed to alleviate the people's economic difficulties.

Jeongjo's sudden death in 1800 at age 47 left many of his initiatives unfulfilled. His death remains shrouded in mystery, with speculation and numerous books dedicated to the circumstances surrounding it. King Sunjo, his second son, succeeded him, marrying Lady Kim of the Andong clan, arranged by Jeongjo before his death.

King Sunjo, the 23rd monarch of the Joseon Dynasty, ruled from 1800 to 1834. Born as Prince Yi Gong, he ascended the throne at the young age of 10 following the death of his father, King Jeongjo. In 1802, at the age of 13, Sunjo married Lady Kim, who posthumously became known as Queen Sunwon. She was the daughter of Kim Jo-sun, a prominent figure in the Andong Kim clan. Due to his youth, Queen Dowager Jeongsun, the second queen of King Yeongjo, initially ruled as queen regent. Her influence was significant during the early part of Sunjo's reign, impacting the treatment and status of Lady Hyegyeong, Sunjo's grandmother. Despite Sunjo's later efforts, he could not fully restore Lady Hyegyeong's status, which had been complicated by the controversial death of her husband, Crown Prince Sado, during King Yeongjo's reign.

King Sunjo's reign witnessed political instability and corruption, particularly in government personnel administration and the state examination system. This turmoil contributed to societal disorder and several uprisings, including the significant revolt led by Hong Gyeong-nae in 1811–1812. During Sunjo's reign, the Ogajaktongbeop, a census registration system grouping five households as one unit, was implemented, and there was increased oppression against Roman Catholicism. King Sunjo's reign, spanning 35 years, ended with his death in 1834 at the age of 44.

Heonjong of Joseon, the 24th king of the Joseon Dynasty, reigned from 1834 to 1849. Born Yi Hwan to Crown Princess Jo and Crown Prince Hyomyeong, Heonjong's birth was marked by auspicious signs, including a dream involving a jade-carved tree and cranes flying around the palace. His father, Crown Prince Hyomyeong, posthumously named Munjo of Joseon, died prematurely, leaving Heonjong to inherit the throne.Ascending to the throne at the age of 7 following the death of his grandfather King Sunjo, Heonjong became the youngest monarch in Joseon history. His early reign was overseen by his grandmother, Queen Sunwon, who served as queen regent. However, even as he reached adulthood, Heonjong struggled to exercise political control over the kingdom.

The influence of the Andong Kim clan, Queen Sunwon's family, grew significantly during Heonjong's reign, particularly after the anti-Catholic Gihae persecution of 1839. The clan's dominance in court affairs overshadowed Heonjong's rule. Heonjong's reign also saw the construction of the Nakseonjae complex within Changdeok Palace, which he controversially designated for the exclusive use of his concubine, Kim Gyeong-bin. King Heonjong's reign ended with his death in 1849 at the age of 21, after ruling for 15 years. His death without an heir led to the throne passing to King Cheoljong, a distant descendant of King Yeongjo.

King Cheoljong of Joseon, the 25th monarch, reigned from 1852 until his death in 1864. Born in 1831, he was the grandson of King Sunjo. His father, Crown Prince Hyomyeong, posthumously known as Munjo of Joseon, died before ascending the throne. Cheoljong married Lady Kim, who was posthumously known as Queen Cheorin, and was a member of the powerful Andong Kim clan.

During his reign, Queen Sunwon, Cheoljong's grandmother, initially exerted significant influence over state affairs. The Andong Kim clan, to which Queen Sunwon and Queen Cheorin belonged, maintained control over politics throughout Cheoljong's reign, rendering him a largely puppet monarch.

Cheoljong's reign saw several significant events and challenges. He sympathized with commoners, especially during a severe drought in 1853, and attempted to reform the corrupt examination system, but with limited success. His reign was also marked by a rebellion in Jinju, Gyeongsang Province in 1862, indicating widespread dissatisfaction and the deteriorating situation in the kingdom.

Cheoljong's reign coincided with increased foreign interactions and incursions. Notably, European and American vessels frequently appeared in Joseon's territorial waters, leading to several incidents, including the bombardment by an unknown foreign boat in Uljin County and the arrival of French and American ships. Despite the official policy of isolation, Catholicism spread in Joseon during Cheoljong's reign, with a significant increase in the number of Christians and French missionaries in the capital.

Cheoljong's death in 1864 at the age of 32 marked the end of his lineage on the throne. Without a male heir, the succession became contentious. Yi Jae-hwang, the second son of Prince Heungseon (later Heungseon Daewongun) and Lady Min, was favored by Cheoljong for succession. However, this choice was disputed within the court, particularly by the Andong Kim clan. Ultimately, Queen Sinjeong, mother of King Heonjong, played a crucial role in adopting Yi Jae-hwang and announcing him as the new king, Gojong of Korea. Gojong's accession marked the beginning of Heungseon Daewongun's influential role in the kingdom.

Gojong, born Yi Myŏngbok, was the penultimate monarch of Korea, reigning from 1864 to 1907. His rule marked the transition from the Joseon Dynasty to the Korean Empire, with Gojong becoming its first emperor. He ruled as the last king of Joseon until 1897 and then as Emperor until his forced abdication in 1907.

Gojong's reign coincided with a tumultuous period in Korean history, characterized by rapid changes and foreign encroachments. Initially crowned at the age of twelve in 1863, he was under the regency of his father Heungseon Daewongun and mother Sunmok Budaebuin until 1874. During this time, Korea maintained its traditional isolationist stance, in stark contrast to Japan's rapid modernization under the Meiji Restoration.

In 1876, Japan forcibly opened Korea to foreign trade, beginning a long process of bringing Korea under its influence. This period saw several significant incidents, including the 1882 Imo Incident, the 1884 Gapsin Coup, the 1894–1895 Donghak Peasant Rebellion, and the assassination of Gojong's wife, Empress Myeongseong, in 1895. These events were deeply entwined with the involvement of foreign powers.

Gojong endeavored to modernize and strengthen Korea through the Gwangmu Reform, focusing on military, industrial, and educational improvements. However, his reforms faced criticism for being insufficient, leading to tensions with groups like the Independence Club.

Following the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), China lost its longstanding suzerainty over Korea. In 1897, Gojong proclaimed the establishment of the Korean Empire, declaring Korea's independence and elevating himself to emperor. This move, however, exacerbated tensions with Japan.

The French expedition to Korea was an 1866 punitive expedition undertaken by the Second French Empire in retaliation for the earlier Korean execution of seven French Catholic missionaries. The encounter over Ganghwa Island lasted nearly six weeks. The result was an eventual French retreat, and a check on French influence in the region. The encounter also confirmed Korea in its isolationism for another decade, until Japan forced it to open up to trade in 1876 through the Treaty of Ganghwa.

The United States expedition to Korea, known by the Koreans as the Shinmiyangyo (신미양요: 辛未洋擾, lit. "Western Disturbance in the Shinmi (1871) Year") or simply the Korean Expedition, in 1871, was the first American military action in Korea. On 10 June, about 650 Americans landed and captured several forts, killing over 200 Korean troops with a loss of only three American soldiers dead. Korea continued to refuse to negotiate with the United States until 1882.

The Donghak Peasant Revolution (1894-1895) in Korea was a significant peasant uprising, influenced by the Donghak movement, which opposed Western technology and ideals. It started in Gobu-gun due to the oppressive policies of Jo Byeong-gap, appointed magistrate in 1892. The revolt, led by Jeon Bong-jun and Kim Gae-nam, began in March 1894 but was initially quelled by Yi Yong-tae. Jeon Bong-jun then amassed forces at Mount Paektu, recaptured Gobu, and won key battles, including the Battle of Hwangtojae and the Battle of the Hwangryong River. The rebels took control of Jeonju Fortress, leading to a siege and the subsequent Treaty of Jeonju in May 1894, establishing a brief, unstable peace.

The Korean government's request for military aid from the Qing dynasty escalated tensions, leading to the First Sino-Japanese War after Japan felt betrayed by the Qing's unilateral action, violating the Convention of Tientsin. This war marked the decline of Chinese influence in Korea and the Self-Strengthening Movement in China.

As Japanese influence in Korea grew, the Donghak rebels, anxious about this development, strategized in Samrye from September to October. They formed a coalition army, attacking Gongju with a force of varying reported sizes. However, the rebels suffered decisive defeats in the Battle of Ugeumchi and again in the Battle of Taein. The rebellion persisted into early 1895, but by spring, most rebel leaders were captured and executed in the Honam Region.

The First Sino-Japanese War (25 July 1894 – 17 April 1895) was a conflict between the Qing dynasty of China and the Empire of Japan primarily over influence in Joseon Korea. After more than six months of unbroken successes by Japanese land and naval forces and the loss of the port of Weihaiwei, the Qing government sued for peace in February 1895.

The Joseon period has left a substantial legacy to modern Korea; much of modern Korean culture, etiquette, norms, and societal attitudes toward current issues, along with the modern Korean language and its dialects, derive from the culture and traditions of Joseon. Modern Korean bureaucracy and administrative divisions were also established during the Joseon period.