The Edo Period, which spanned from 1603 to 1868, was a time of relative stability, peace and cultural flourishing in Japan under the rule of the Tokugawa Shogunate.^[64] The period began when Emperor Go-Yōzei officially declared Tokugawa Ieyasu as shōgun.^[65] Over time, the Tokugawa government centralized its rule from Edo (now Tokyo), introducing policies like the Laws for the Military Houses and the alternate attendance system to keep the regional lords, or daimyōs, under control. Despite these efforts, daimyōs retained considerable autonomy in their domains. The Tokugawa shogunate also established a rigid social structure, where samurai, who served as bureaucrats and advisors, occupied the top echelons, while the emperor in Kyoto remained a symbolic figure with no political power.

The shogunate went to great lengths to suppress social unrest, implementing draconian penalties for even minor offenses. Christians were particularly targeted, culminating in the complete outlawing of Christianity after the Shimabara Rebellion in 1638.^[66] In a policy known as sakoku, Japan closed itself off from most of the world, limiting foreign trade to the Dutch, Chinese, and Koreans, and forbidding Japanese citizens from traveling abroad.^[67] This isolationism helped the Tokugawa maintain their grip on power, although it also cut off Japan from most external influences for over two centuries.

Despite the isolationist policies, the Edo period was marked by substantial growth in agriculture and commerce, leading to a population boom. Japan’s population doubled to thirty million in the first century of Tokugawa rule.^[68] The government's infrastructure projects and standardization of coinage facilitated commercial expansion, benefiting both rural and urban populations.^[69] Literacy and numeracy rates rose significantly, setting the stage for Japan's later economic successes. Almost 90% of the population lived in rural areas, but the cities, particularly Edo, saw a surge in their populations.

Culturally, the Edo period was a time of great innovation and creativity. The concept of "ukiyo," or the "floating world," captured the hedonistic lifestyles of the burgeoning merchant class. This was the era of ukiyo-e woodblock prints, kabuki and bunraku theater, and the poetry form haiku, most famously exemplified by Matsuo Bashō. A new class of entertainers known as geishas also emerged during this period. The period was also marked by the influence of Neo-Confucianism, which the Tokugawas adopted as a guiding philosophy, further stratifying the Japanese society into four classes based on occupations.

The decline of the Tokugawa shogunate began in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.^[70] Economic difficulties, discontent among the lower classes and samurai, and the government's inability to deal with crises like the Tenpō famines weakened the regime.^[70] The arrival of Commodore Matthew Perry in 1853 exposed Japan's vulnerability and led to unequal treaties with Western powers, fueling internal resentment and opposition. This sparked the nationalist sentiments, especially in the Chōshū and Satsuma domains, leading to the Boshin War and ultimately the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1868, paving the way for the Meiji Restoration.