The Aq Qoyunlu, also known as the White Sheep Turkomans, were a Sunni Turkoman tribal confederation that rose to prominence in the late 14th and early 15th centuries. They were culturally Persianate and ruled over a vast territory that included parts of present-day eastern Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq, and even extended their influence to Oman by the late 15th century. Their empire reached its zenith under the leadership of Uzun Hasan, who managed to expand their territories significantly and establish the Aq Qoyunlu as a formidable regional power.

Background and Rise to Power

Founded in the Diyarbakir region by Qara Yuluk Uthman Beg, the Aq Qoyunlu initially were part of the district of Bayburt south of the Pontic Mountains and were first attested in the 1340s. They initially served as vassals under the Ilkhan Ghazan and gained prominence in the region through military campaigns, including unsuccessful sieges like that of Trebizond.

Expansion and Conflict

By 1402, Timur had granted the Aq Qoyunlu all of Diyarbakir, but it wasn't until the leadership of Uzun Hasan that they truly began to expand their territory. Uzun Hasan's military prowess was demonstrated in his defeat of the Black Sheep Turkomans (Qara Qoyunlu) in 1467, which was a turning point that allowed the Aq Qoyunlu to dominate much of Iran and the surrounding regions.

Diplomatic Efforts and Conflicts

Uzun Hasan's rule was marked not only by military conquests but also by significant diplomatic efforts, including alliances and conflicts with major powers such as the Ottoman Empire and the Karamanids. Despite receiving promises of military aid from Venice against the Ottomans, the support never materialized, leading to his defeat at the Battle of Otlukbeli in 1473.

Governance and Cultural Flourishing

Under Uzun Hasan, the Aq Qoyunlu not only expanded territorially but also experienced a cultural renaissance. Uzun Hasan adopted Iranian customs for administration, maintaining the bureaucratic structure established by previous dynasties and fostering a court culture that mirrored that of Iranian kingship. This period saw the sponsorship of arts, literature, and architecture, significantly contributing to the cultural landscape of the region.

Decline and Legacy

The death of Uzun Hasan in 1478 led to a succession of less effective rulers, which eventually culminated in internal strife and the weakening of the Aq Qoyunlu state. This internal turmoil allowed for the rise of the Safavids, who capitalized on the decline of the Aq Qoyunlu. By 1503, the Safavid leader Ismail I had decisively defeated the Aq Qoyunlu, marking the end of their rule and the beginning of Safavid dominance in the region.

The Aq Qoyunlu's legacy is notable for their role in shaping the political and cultural dynamics of the Middle East during the 15th century. Their governance model, blending nomadic Turkoman traditions with the sedentary Persian administrative practices, set the stage for future empires in the region, including the Safavids, who would draw on the Aq Qoyunlu's example to establish their own lasting empire.