The Mongol invasions of Georgia, which occurred throughout the 13th century, marked a significant period of turmoil for the region, then comprising Georgia proper, Armenia, and much of the Caucasus. The initial contact with the Mongol forces came in 1220 when generals Subutai and Jebe, pursuing Muhammad II of Khwarezm amid the destruction of the Khwarezmian Empire, conducted a series of devastating raids. These early encounters saw the defeat of combined Georgian and Armenian forces, showcasing the formidable military prowess of the Mongols.

The major phase of Mongol expansion into the Caucasus and eastern Anatolia commenced in 1236. This campaign led to the subjugation of the Kingdom of Georgia, the Sultanate of Rum, and the Empire of Trebizond. Additionally, the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia and other Crusader states opted to accept Mongol vassalage voluntarily. The Mongols also eradicated the Assassins during this period.

Mongol dominance in the Caucasus persisted until the late 1330s, albeit punctuated by the brief restoration of Georgian independence under King George V the Brilliant. However, the continued stability of the region was undermined by subsequent invasions led by Timur, ultimately leading to the fragmentation of Georgia. This period of Mongol rule deeply impacted the political landscape of the Caucasus and shaped the historical trajectory of the region.

Mongol Invasions

The initial Mongol incursion into the territories of the Georgian Kingdom occurred in the fall of 1220, led by generals Subutai and Jebe. This first contact was part of a reconnaissance mission authorized by Genghis Khan during their pursuit of the Shah of Khwarezm. The Mongols ventured into Armenia, under Georgian control at the time, and decisively defeated a Georgian-Armenian force at the Battle of Khunan, wounding King George IV of Georgia. However, their progression into the Caucasus was temporary as they returned to focus on the Khwarezmian campaign.

The Mongol forces resumed their aggressive push into Georgian territories in 1221, exploiting the lack of Georgian resistance to ravage the countryside, culminating in another significant victory at the Battle of Bardav. Despite their successes, this expedition was not one of conquest but rather reconnaissance and plunder, and they retreated from the region after their campaign.

Ivane I Zakarian, as the Atabeg and Amirspasalar of Georgia, played a crucial role in resisting the Mongols from 1220 to 1227, although the exact details of his resistance are not well-documented. Despite the lack of clarity on the attackers' identity from contemporary Georgian chronicles, it became apparent that the Mongols were pagans despite earlier assumptions of their Christian identity due to their initial opposition to Muslim forces.

This misidentification even impacted international relations, as Georgia failed to support the Fifth Crusade as initially planned due to the devastating effects of the Mongol raids on its military capabilities. Interestingly, the Mongols employed advanced siege technologies, possibly including gunpowder weapons, indicating their strategic use of Chinese military tactics and equipment during their invasions.

The situation in Georgia worsened with the attack by Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu, the fugitive Khwarezmian Shah, which led to the capture of Tbilisi in 1226, severely weakening Georgia before the third Mongol invasion in 1236. This final invasion effectively shattered the Georgian kingdom's resistance. Most of the Georgian and Armenian nobility either submitted to the Mongols or sought refuge, leaving the region vulnerable to further devastation and conquest. Significant figures like Ivane I Jaqeli eventually submitted after extensive resistance.

By 1238, Georgia had largely fallen under Mongol control, with formal acknowledgment of the Great Khan's overlordship coming by 1243. This acknowledgment included a heavy tribute and military support obligations, marking the beginning of a period of Mongol dominance in the region, which significantly altered the course of Georgian history.

Mongol Rule

During the Mongol rule in the Caucasus, which began in the early 13th century, the region experienced significant political and administrative changes. The Mongols established the Vilayet of Gurjistan, encompassing Georgia and the entire South Caucasus, governing indirectly through the local Georgian monarch. This monarch needed confirmation from the Great Khan to ascend to the throne, integrating the region more tightly into the Mongol Empire.

Following Queen Rusudan's death in 1245, Georgia entered a period of interregnum. The Mongols exploited the succession dispute, supporting rival factions that backed different candidates for the Georgian crown. These candidates were David VII "Ulu", an illegitimate son of George IV, and David VI "Narin", son of Rusudan. After a failed Georgian revolt against Mongol domination in 1245, Güyük Khan, in 1247, decided to make both Davids co-kings, ruling eastern and western Georgia respectively.

The Mongols abolished their initial system of military-administrative districts (tumens) but maintained strict oversight to ensure a steady flow of taxes and tributes. Georgians were heavily utilized in the Mongol military campaigns across the Middle East, including in significant battles such as those at Alamut (1256), Baghdad (1258), and Ain Jalut (1260). This extensive military service severely depleted Georgia’s defenses, leaving it vulnerable to internal revolts and external threats.

Notably, Georgian contingents also participated in the Mongol victory at Köse Dag in 1243, which defeated the Seljuks of Rüm. This illustrated the complex and sometimes contradictory roles Georgians played in Mongol military ventures, as they also fought alongside their traditional rivals or enemies in these battles.

In 1256, the Mongol Ilkhanate, based in Persia, took direct control over Georgia. A significant Georgian rebellion occurred in 1259-1260 under David Narin, who successfully established independence for Imereti in western Georgia. However, the Mongol response was swift and severe, with David Ulu, who joined the rebellion, being defeated and subjugated once more.

The continuous conflicts, heavy taxation, and compulsory military service led to widespread dissatisfaction and weakened the Mongol grip on Georgia. By the late 13th century, with the Ilkhanate’s power waning, Georgia saw opportunities to restore some aspects of its autonomy. Nevertheless, the political fragmentation induced by the Mongols had long-lasting effects on Georgian statehood. The nobles' increased power and regional autonomy further complicated national unity and governance, leading to periods of near anarchy and enabling the Mongols to manipulate local rulers to maintain control.

Ultimately, the Mongol influence in Georgia diminished as the Ilkhanate disintegrated in Persia, but the legacy of their rule continued to impact the region's political landscape, contributing to ongoing instability and fragmentation.