Genghis Khan

The year of Temüjin's birth is disputed, as historians favour different dates: 1155, 1162 or 1167. Some traditions place his birth in the Year of the Pig, which was either 1155 or 1167. While a dating to 1155 is supported by the writings of both Zhao Hong and Rashid al-Din, other major sources such as the History of Yuan and the Shengwu favour the year 1162. The 1167 dating, favoured by Paul Pelliot, is derived from a minor source—a text of the Yuan artist Yang Weizhen—but is more compatible with the events of Genghis Khan's life than a 1155 placement, which implies that he did not have children until after the age of thirty and continued actively campaigning into his seventh decade. 1162 remains the most accepted date; the historian Paul Ratchnevsky notes that Temüjin himself may not have known the truth. The location of Temüjin's birth is similarly debated: the Secret History records his birthplace as Delüün Boldog on the Onon River, but this has been placed at either Dadal in Khentii Province or in southern Agin-Buryat Okrug, Russia.

Temüjin was born into the Borjigin clan of the Mongol tribe to Yesügei, a chieftain who claimed descent from the legendary warlord Bodonchar Munkhag, and his principal wife Hö'elün, originally of the Olkhonud clan, whom Yesügei had abducted from her Merkit bridegroom Chiledu. The origin of his birth-name is contested: the earliest traditions hold that his father had just returned from a successful campaign against the Tatars with a captive named Temüchin-uge, after whom he named the newborn in celebration of his victory, while later traditions highlight the root temür (meaning 'iron') and connect to theories that "Temüjin" means 'blacksmith'. Yesügei and Hö'elün had three younger sons after Temüjin: Qasar, Hachiun, and Temüge, as well as one daughter, Temülen. Temüjin also had two half-brothers, Behter and Belgutei, from Yesügei's second wife Sochigel, whose identity is uncertain. The siblings grew up at Yesugei's main camp on the banks of the Onon, where they learned how to ride a horse and shoot a bow.

When Temüjin was eight years old, Yesügei decided to betroth him to a suitable girl. He took his heir to the pastures of Hö'elün's prestigious Onggirat tribe, which had intermarried with the Mongols on many previous occasions. There, he arranged a betrothal between Temüjin and Börte, the daughter of an Onggirat chieftain named Dei Sechen . As the betrothal meant Yesügei would gain a powerful ally, and as Börte commanded a high bride price, Dei Sechen held the stronger negotiating position, and demanded that Temüjin remain in his household to work off his future debt. Accepting this condition, Yesügei requested a meal from a band of Tatars he encountered while riding homewards alone, relying on the steppe tradition of hospitality to strangers. However, the Tatars recognised their old enemy, and slipped poison into his food. Yesügei gradually sickened but managed to return home; close to death, he requested a trusted retainer called Münglig to retrieve Temüjin from the Onggirat. He died soon after.

At age eight, Temüjin was betrothed by his father Yesügei to Börte, daughter of Onggirat chieftain Dei Sechen, to secure an alliance through marriage. This union necessitated Temüjin to stay with the Onggirats, fulfilling obligations towards his future bride's family. On his return journey, Yesügei, poisoned by Tatars he encountered, barely made it home before succumbing to the poison. Before dying, he arranged for Temüjin's retrieval from the Onggirats through a loyal retainer, Münglig.

Following Yesügei's death, his family, led by the young Temüjin and his mother Hö'elün, faced abandonment by their clan, the Borjigin, and their allies, due to Temüjin's and his brother Behter's young ages. Despite some sources suggesting familial support, the majority depict Hö'elün's family as outcast, leading to a difficult hunter-gatherer existence. Tensions over inheritance and leadership between Temüjin and Behter escalated, culminating in Behter's death by Temüjin and his brother Qasar. Temüjin formed a pivotal friendship with Jamukha, a boy of noble birth, at the age of eleven. They solidified their bond by exchanging gifts and swearing the anda pact, a Mongol tradition signifying blood brotherhood.

During this period of vulnerability, Temüjin faced several captures. He escaped from the Tayichiuds with the help of Sorkan-Shira, who sheltered him, and later Bo'orchu, who assisted him in a crucial moment and became his first nökor, showcasing Temüjin's emerging leadership and charisma.

At fifteen, Temüjin (Genghiz) married Börte, with Dei Sechen, her father, warmly welcoming him and presenting the couple with gifts, including an expensive sable cloak for Hö'elün. Seeking support, Temüjin allied with Toghrul, khan of the Kerait tribe, by gifting him the sable cloak, securing his protection and beginning to build his own following, with figures like Jelme joining his ranks. During this period, Temüjin and Börte welcomed their first child, a daughter named Qojin.

In retaliation for Yesügei's earlier abduction of Hö'elün, around 300 Merkits attacked Temüjin's camp, abducting Börte and Sochigel. Börte was forced into marriage according to levirate law. Temüjin sought help from Toghrul and his blood brother Jamukha, now a tribal chief, who assembled an army of 20,000 warriors. They successfully rescued Börte, who was pregnant and later gave birth to Jochi, whose paternity was questioned but was raised by Temüjin as his own. Over the following years, Temüjin and Börte had three more sons—Chagatai, Ögedei, and Tolui—and four daughters, underlining the family's growing prominence.

After camping together for a year and a half and reinforcing their anda pact, tensions between Temüjin and Jamukha led to their separation, possibly influenced by Börte's ambitions. While Jamukha retained the support of major tribal rulers, Temüjin attracted forty-one leaders and numerous followers, including notable figures like Subutai from various tribes.

Temüjin's followers declared him khan of the Mongols, pleasing Toghrul but inciting Jamukha's resentment. This tension led to a battle at Dalan Baljut around 1187, where Temüjin faced defeat against Jamukha's forces, despite conflicting accounts from later historians like Rashid al-Din, who suggest Temüjin emerged victorious

The Battle of Dalan Baljut in 1187 marked a pivotal conflict between Temüjin (future Genghis Khan) and his once close friend, Jamukha. Diverging political ideologies—Jamukha's support for traditional Mongol aristocracy vs. Temüjin's preference for meritocracy—fueled their separation. Despite Temüjin's broad support base, successful campaigns, and being declared Khan in 1186, Jamukha's attack with 30,000 troops led to Temüjin's defeat and his subsequent disappearance for a decade. Jamukha's harsh treatment of captives post-battle, including boiling 70 youths alive, repelled potential allies.

Following the Battle of Dalan Baljut, historians Ratchnevsky and Timothy May suggest Temüjin likely served the Jurchen Jin dynasty in North China for a significant period, a claim supported by Zhao Hong's records of Temüjin's enslavement by the Jin. This notion, once dismissed as nationalistic exaggeration, is now considered plausible, filling a gap in Temüjin's known activities up to around 1195. His successful return with considerable power hints at a beneficial period with the Jin, despite the episode's absence from Mongol historical accounts, likely due to its potential to tarnish Mongol prestige.

In early summer 1196, Temüjin's return to the steppe saw him joining forces with the Jin dynasty against the Tatars, who opposed Jin interests. For his contributions, the Jin honored him with the title cha-ut kuri, akin to "commander of hundreds" in Jurchen. Concurrently, he aided Toghrul in regaining control over the Kereit, challenging a usurpation backed by the Naiman tribe. These actions in 1196 notably elevated Temüjin's status from Toghrul's vassal to a position of equal ally, altering his influence in the steppe dynamics.

In the years leading up to 1201, Temüjin and Toghrul waged campaigns against the Merkits, Naimans, and Tatars, both jointly and separately. Discontented tribes, including the Onggirat, Tayichiud, and Tatars, united under Jamukha as their leader, seeking to end the Borjigin-Kereit dominance. However, Temüjin and Toghrul decisively defeated this coalition at Yedi Qunan, forcing Jamukha to seek Toghrul's mercy. Aiming for total control over eastern Mongolia, Temüjin conquered the Tayichiud and the Tatars by 1202, executing their leaders and integrating their fighters into his forces. Notable among his new warriors were Sorkan-Shira, a previous ally, and Jebe, a young warrior who earned Temüjin's respect by demonstrating bravery and skill in battle.

With the Tatars absorbed, the steppe's power dynamics centered around the Naimans, Mongols, and Kereits. Temüjin's marriage proposal for his son Jochi to one of Toghrul's daughters sparked suspicion among the Kereit elite, led by Toghrul's son Senggum, viewing it as a maneuver for control, compounded by doubts about Jochi's paternity. Jamukha further highlighted Temüjin's challenge to steppe aristocracy by promoting commoners, upsetting traditional hierarchies. Toghrul, influenced by these concerns, planned an ambush against Temüjin, which was foiled by forewarned herdsmen. Despite mobilizing some forces, Temüjin faced a significant defeat at the Battle of Qalaqaljid Sands.

Following setbacks, Temüjin retreated to Baljuna to regroup his forces. With Bo'orchu on foot and his son Ögedei injured but aided by Borokhula, Temüjin rallied all allies, instituting the Baljuna Covenant. This oath of loyalty, promising exclusivity and prestige, was made by a diverse group from nine tribes, including Christians, Muslims, and Buddhists, unified by their allegiance to Temüjin.

Using a tactical deception led by Qasar, the Mongols unexpectedly attacked the Kereit at Jej'er Heights. The battle, lasting three days, concluded with a significant victory for Temüjin. Both Toghrul and Senggum were forced into flight; Senggum fled to Tibet, while Toghrul met his end at the hands of a Naiman who failed to recognize him. Temüjin then integrated the Kereit leadership into his ranks, marrying Princess Ibaqa and arranging marriages of her sister Sorghaghtani and niece Doquz to his youngest son, Tolui. The Naiman forces, bolstered by Jamukha and others defeated by the Mongols, prepared for conflict. Informed by Alaqush, ruler of the Ongud tribe, Temüjin faced the Naimans in May 1204 at Chakirmaut in the Altai Mountains, where they suffered a crushing defeat; Tayang Khan was killed, and his son Kuchlug fled westward. The Merkits were substantially weakened later that same year. Jamukha, having left the Naimans during Chakirmaut, was betrayed to Temüjin by his own men, who were then executed for their betrayal. The Secret History mentions that Jamukha requested an honorable execution from his childhood friend, while other sources claim he was dismembered.

From 1204 to 1209, Genghis Khan expanded Mongol influence. He sent Jochi north in 1207 to conquer tribes in Siberia, gaining access to valuable resources like grain, furs, and gold by marrying into the Oirats and defeating the Yenisei Kyrgyz. The Mongols also moved west, overcoming a Naiman-Merkit coalition and securing Uyghur allegiance, marking the Mongols' first submission from a settled society.

Genghis began attacking the Western Xia kingdom in 1205, partly to retaliate against their sheltering of Senggum and to boost the Mongol economy through raids. The Xia's weak northern defenses led to Mongol victories, including capturing the fortress of Wulahai in 1207. In 1209, Genghis personally led an invasion, capturing Wulahai again and advancing on the Xia capital. Despite initial setbacks and a failed siege due to inadequate equipment, Genghis managed a tactical retreat that tricked the Xia into a vulnerable position, leading to their defeat.

The siege of the Xia capital stalled due to the Mongols' lack of siege technology, and a failed attempt to flood the city led to a Mongol retreat after the dam broke. Eventually, peace was made with the Xia submitting to Mongol rule in exchange for stopping the attacks, with the Xia emperor sending tribute, including his daughter, to Genghis.

In 1206, at a grand assembly by the Onon River, Temüjin was proclaimed Genghis Khan, a title with debated origins—some say it signifies strength or universal rule, while others argue it meant little more than a break from traditional titles. Now ruling over a million people, Genghis Khan initiated a social overhaul to dismantle tribal loyalties, favoring allegiance solely to him and his family, thus forming a centralized state. Traditional tribal leaders were mostly gone, allowing Genghis to elevate his family as the 'Golden Family' atop the social structure, with a new aristocracy and loyal families beneath.

Genghis restructured Mongol society into a military decimal system, drafting men aged fifteen to seventy into units of a thousand, further divided into hundreds and tens. This structure also incorporated families, effectively blending military and societal functions to ensure loyalty directly to Genghis and prevent tribal uprisings.

Senior commanders, or nökod, like Bo'orchu and Muqali, were appointed significant military roles, showcasing Genghis's meritocratic approach. Even those from humble origins were given command, demonstrating Genghis’s emphasis on loyalty and merit over birthright. Some commanders were allowed to maintain their tribal identities, a concession for their loyalty.

Additionally, the expansion of the keshig, the khan's bodyguard, played a crucial role. Initially a small guard, its numbers swelled to 10,000, serving various roles from personal protection to administration, and acting as a training ground for future leaders. This elite group enjoyed privileges and direct access to Genghis Khan, securing their loyalty and grooming them for higher command.

In 1209, Wanyan Yongji usurped the Jin throne. He had previously served on the steppe frontier and Genghis greatly disliked him. When Yongji demanded tribute in 1210, Genghis openly defied him, setting the stage for war. Despite the possibility of being outnumbered eight-to-one by 600,000 Jin soldiers, Genghis had made preparations for an invasion since 1206 due to Jin vulnerabilities. Genghis had two aims: to take vengeance for past wrongs committed by the Jin, foremost among which was the death of Ambaghai Khan in the mid-12th century, and to win the vast amounts of plunder his troops and vassals expected.

In March 1211, after organizing a kurultai, Genghis Khan initiated his invasion of Jin China, swiftly reaching and bypassing the Jin's border defenses with help from the Ongud tribe in June. The invasion strategy focused on widespread plundering and burning to undercut Jin resources and legitimacy while aiming to control strategic mountain passes for further advances. The Jin faced significant territorial losses and a wave of defections, notably contributing to Muqali's significant victory at Huan'erzhui in late 1211. However, the campaign paused in 1212 due to Genghis being injured by an arrow during the siege of Xijing. This setback led him to establish a specialized siege engineering unit, incorporating 500 Jin specialists to enhance his military capabilities.

By 1213, the Mongols overcame the strengthened Juyong Pass defenses, led by Jebe, creating a pathway to Zhongdu (now Beijing). The Jin's political structure weakened significantly when the Khitans rebelled and Hushahu, the military leader in Xijing, executed a coup, killing Yongji and installing Xuanzong as a puppet leader. Despite their initial success, Genghis's army faced setbacks, including disease and food shortages, leading to dire conditions and peace negotiations. Genghis managed to extract substantial tribute from the Jin, including horses, slaves, a princess, and valuable goods, then retreated in May 1214.

After the northern Jin regions were devastated, Xuanzong relocated the capital to Kaifeng, a move Genghis Khan viewed as a breach of their peace treaty, prompting him to plan another attack on Zhongdu. Historian Christopher Atwood notes that this decision marked Genghis's commitment to conquer northern China. Throughout the winter of 1214–15, Muqali successfully took over many towns, leading to Zhongdu's surrender in May 1215, though the city faced looting. Genghis returned to Mongolia in 1216, leaving Muqali to oversee operations in China, where he continued to challenge the Jin until his death in 1223.

The Battle of Zhongdu (present-day Beijing) was a battle in 1215 between the Mongols and the Jurchen Jin dynasty, which controlled northern China. The Mongols won and continued their conquest of China. The battle for Beijing was long and tiresome, but the Mongols proved to be more powerful as they finally took the city on 1 June 1215, massacring its inhabitants. This forced Jin Emperor Xuanzong to move his capital south to Kaifeng, and opened the Yellow River valley to further Mongol ravages. Kaifeng also fell to the Mongols after a siege in 1232.

After Genghis Khan's victory over the Naimans in 1204, the Naiman prince Kuchlug sought refuge with the Qara Khitai. Welcomed by Gurkhan Yelü Zhilugu, Kuchlug eventually seized power through a coup, ruling indirectly until Zhilugu's death in 1213, then taking direct control. Initially a Nestorian Christian, Kuchlug converted to Buddhism upon his rise among the Qara Khitai and initiated religious persecutions against the Muslim majority, which led to widespread discontent.

In 1218, to counter Kuchlug's growing threat, Genghis Khan dispatched General Jebe with 20,000 troops, including Genghis Khan's son-in-law, the Uyghur Barchuk, and possibly Arslan Khan, to confront Kuchlug, while Subutai led another force against the Merkits. The Mongol forces advanced through the mountains to Almaliq, with Subutai splitting off to target the Merkits. Jebe then moved to attack the Qara Khitai, defeating a large army at Balasagun and causing Kuchlug to flee to Kashgar. Jebe's announcement ending religious persecution won him local support, leading to a revolt against Kuchlug in Kashgar. Kuchlug fled but was captured by hunters and executed by the Mongols.

The Mongol victory over Kuchlug solidified their control over the Qara Khitai territory, extending their influence in Central Asia and setting the stage for further conflicts with the neighboring Khwarazm Empire.

Genghis Khan secured control over the eastern Silk Road and its adjacent territories, bordering the expansive Khwarazmian Empire. The halt of trade during Kuchlug's reign led to eagerness for its resumption. However, suspicions from the Khwarazmian side resulted in the massacre of a Mongol trade caravan in Otrar by Governor Inalchuq, an act that, whether directly supported or ignored by the Khwarazmian Shah Muhammad II, sparked Genghis Khan's wrath and led to a declaration of war.

The Khwarazmian Empire, though large, was fragmented and poorly unified under Muhammad II, making it vulnerable to the Mongols' mobile warfare tactics. The Mongols' initial target was Otrar, which, after a prolonged siege, fell in 1220. Genghis then split his forces, directing simultaneous assaults across the region, leading to the rapid capture of key cities like Bukhara and Samarkand. Muhammad II fled, pursued by Mongol generals, until his death in 1220–21.

In a remarkable display of mobility and military prowess, Mongol generals Jebe and Subutai conducted a 4,700-mile raid around the Caspian Sea, marking the Mongols' first significant interaction with Europe. Meanwhile, Genghis Khan's sons besieged and captured the Khwarazmian capital of Gurganj, with Jalal al-Din, Muhammad's successor, fleeing to India after a series of defeats.

Tolui's campaign in Khorasan was notably ruthless, with the destruction of major cities like Nishapur, Merv, and Herat, cementing Genghis Khan's legacy as a merciless conqueror. Though contemporary estimates of the death toll are seen as exaggerated by modern scholars, the campaign undeniably resulted in significant demographic impacts.

Following the Mongol invasion of Khwarezm, Jalal ad-Din was forced to flee towards the Hindu Kush, where he began to muster additional troops to face the Mongols. With the arrival of over 30,000 Afghan warriors. His strength reportedly was between 30,000 and 60,000 men. Genghis Khan sent his chief justice Shikhikhutag to hunt down Jalal al-Din, but only gave the rookie general 30,000 troops.

Shikhikhutag was overconfident after the continuous Mongol successes, and he quickly found himself on the back foot against the much more numerous Khwarezmian force. The battle took place in a narrow valley, which was unsuitable for the Mongol cavalry. Jalal al-Din had mounted archers, whom he ordered to dismount and fire on the Mongols. Because of the narrow terrain, the Mongols could not use their normal tactics. To deceive the Khwarezmians, Shikhikhutag mounted straw warriors on spare remounts, which may have spared him from a killing stroke, but he was still driven off in defeat losing over half his army.

Jalal ad-Din positioned his army of at least thirty thousand men in a defensive stance against the Mongols, placing one flank against the mountains while his other flank was covered by a river bend.The initial Mongol charge that opened the battle was beaten back. Jalal al-Din counterattacked, and nearly breached the center of the Mongol army. Genghis then sent a contingent of 10,000 men around the mountain to flank Jalal ad-Din's army. With his army attacked from two directions and collapsing into chaos, Jalal al-Din fled across the Indus river.

In 1221, Genghis Khan halted his Central Asian campaigns, initially planning to return via India but reconsidering due to the unsuitable climate and unfavorable omens. Despite overcoming rebellions in Khorasan in 1222, the Mongols withdrew to prevent overextension, establishing the Amu Darya river as their new frontier. Genghis Khan then focused on administrative organization for the conquered territories, appointing officials known as darughachi and basqaq to restore normalcy. He also engaged with the Taoist patriarch Changchun, granting Taoism significant privileges within the empire.

The campaign's halt is often attributed to the Western Xia's failure to support the Mongols and their subsequent rebellion against Mongol control. Despite initial attempts at diplomacy, Genghis Khan prepared for war against the Western Xia upon his return to Mongolia in early 1225. The campaign began in early 1226, achieving rapid success with the capture of Khara-Khoto and the systematic sacking of cities along the Gansu Corridor. The Mongols then besieged Lingwu near the Xia capital. On 4 December, after defeating a Xia army, Genghis Khan left the siege to his generals, moving south with Subutai to secure further territories.

The Mongols made their first appearance in the Georgian possessions when this latter kingdom was still in its zenith, dominating most of the Caucasus. First contact occurred early in the fall of 1220, when approximately 20,000 Mongols led by Subutai and Jebe pursued the ousted Shah Muhammad II of the Khwarazmian dynasty to the Caspian Sea. With the consent of Genghis Khan, the two Mongol generals proceeded west on a reconnaissance mission. They thrust into Armenia, then under Georgian authority, and defeated some 10,000 Georgians and Armenians commanded by King George IV "Lasha" of Georgia and his atabeg (tutor) and amirspasalar (commander-in-chief) Ivane Mkhargrdzeli at the Battle of Khunan on the Kotman River. George was severely wounded in the chest.

Though subjugated under the Mongols, the Tangut Dynasty of Xi Xia refuses to lend military support to the campaign against the Khwarzin Dynasty, instead going into open rebellion. After defeating the Khwarzins, Genghis Khan immediately takes his army back to Xi Xia and begins a string of victories over the Tanguts. After victory, he orders the execution of the Tanguts, thereby putting an end to their dynasty. Genghis ordered his generals to systematically destroy cities and garrisons as they went.

In the winter of 1226–27, Genghis Khan fell from his horse while hunting and became increasingly sick. His illness slowed the progress of a siege against Xia. Despite advice to return home and recover, he insisted on continuing. Genghis died on August 25, 1227, but his death was kept secret. The Xia city, unaware of his death, fell the next month. The population suffered severe brutality, leading to the near extinction of the Xia civilization. There's speculation about how Genghis died. Some sources suggest illness like malaria or bubonic plague, while others claim he was shot by an arrow or struck by lightning.

After his death, Genghis was buried near Burkhan Khaldun peak in the Khentii Mountains, a site he had chosen earlier. Details of his funeral were kept private. When his son Ogedei became khan in 1229, the grave was honored with offerings and the sacrifice of thirty maidens. Some theories suggest he may have been buried in the Ordos region to prevent decomposition.