The Almohad movement originated with Ibn Tumart, a member of the Masmuda, a Berber tribal confederation of the Atlas Mountains of southern Morocco. At the time, Morocco, western Algeria and Spain (al-Andalus), were under the rule of the Almoravids, a Sanhaja Berber dynasty. Early in his life, Ibn Tumart went to Córdoba, Spain to pursue his studies, and thereafter to Baghdad to deepen them. In Baghdad, Ibn Tumart attached himself to the theological school of al-Ash'ari, and came under the influence of the teacher al-Ghazali. He soon developed his own system, combining the doctrines of various masters.

Ibn Tumart spent some time in various Ifriqiyan cities, preaching and agitating, heading riotous attacks on wine-shops and on other manifestations of laxity. His antics and fiery preaching led fed-up authorities to move him along from town to town. In 1120, Ibn Tumart and his small band of followers proceeded to Morocco, stopping first in Fez, where he briefly engaged the Maliki scholars of the city in debate. He even went so far as to assault the sister of the Almoravid emir ʿAli ibn Yusuf, in the streets of Fez, because she was going about unveiled, after the manner of Berber women. The emir decided merely to expel him from the city.

In the early 12th century, Ibn Tumart, a religious scholar and leader of the Berber Masmuda tribe, retreated to his home region in the Sous valley, southern Morocco, after his failed attempts to convince the ruling Almoravid dynasty to adopt his vision of puritanical reform. He sought refuge among the Hargha, his own people, and settled in the village of Igiliz. Living a life of strict asceticism, he secluded himself in a nearby cave, emerging only to preach his message of reform. Over time, his teachings began to draw ever-larger audiences, captivated by his call for a return to a more rigorous interpretation of Islam, based on his rejection of the Almoravid rulers' perceived moral and religious laxity.

In the early 12th century, Ibn Tumart, a religious scholar and leader of the Berber Masmuda tribe, retreated to his home region in the Sous valley, southern Morocco, after his failed attempts to convince the ruling Almoravid dynasty to adopt his vision of puritanical reform. He sought refuge among the Hargha, his own people, and settled in the village of Igiliz. Living a life of strict asceticism, he secluded himself in a nearby cave, emerging only to preach his message of reform. Over time, his teachings began to draw ever-larger audiences, captivated by his call for a return to a more rigorous interpretation of Islam, based on his rejection of the Almoravid rulers' perceived moral and religious laxity.

As his following grew, Ibn Tumart’s message became increasingly radical. Towards the end of Ramadan in 1121, after delivering a particularly powerful sermon, he proclaimed himself the Mahdi—an awaited, divinely guided leader who would restore justice and true faith. His declaration was met with acceptance by his audience, marking a turning point in his movement. This self-revelation was not merely a religious claim but a de facto declaration of war against the Almoravid state, as it positioned Ibn Tumart as a direct challenger to their rule and legitimacy. From this moment, the ideological and military struggle between Ibn Tumart’s movement and the Almoravids would intensify, eventually leading to the rise of the Almohad movement.

In 1122, on the advice of his follower Omar Hintati, a chieftain of the Hintata tribe, Ibn Tumart abandoned his secluded cave and moved into the High Atlas Mountains to further organize the Almohad movement among the highland Masmuda tribes. This strategic shift allowed him to extend his influence beyond his own Hargha tribe. Through his efforts, Ibn Tumart secured the allegiance of several key tribes, including the Ganfisa, the Gadmiwa, the Hintata, the Haskura, and the Hazraja, bolstering the strength and unity of the emerging Almohad movement.

Approximate locations of the main Masmuda tribes that adhered to the Almohads. @ Omar-toons

Around 1124, Ibn Tumart established his base at Tinmel, a highly defensible location in the Nfis Valley of the High Atlas. Tinmel became the heart of the Almohad movement, serving as both a spiritual center and military headquarters. It was considered the Almohad "dar al-hijra," mirroring the historical migration (hijra) of the Prophet Muhammad to Medina in the 7th century, symbolizing a place of refuge and rallying point for the faithful.

For the next eight years, the Almohad rebellion waged a guerilla war from the mountain peaks and ravines of the High Atlas. They focused on disrupting the roads and mountain passes south of Marrakesh, which were crucial routes leading to Sijilmassa, a key hub in the trans-Saharan trade. The Almohads' strategy effectively made these routes insecure or impassable, posing a significant threat to the Almoravid state's trade and communications.

The Almoravids, finding it difficult to deploy enough manpower through the narrow passes to expel the Almohad rebels from their fortified mountain positions, shifted their strategy to containment. They established strongholds to confine the Almohad forces, the most notable being the fortress of Tasghîmût, which protected the approach to the town of Aghmat. However, the Almohads eventually broke through, capturing the fortress in 1132, demonstrating their growing strength and signaling a turning point in their campaign against the Almoravid state.

The Almohads finally descended from the mountains for their first sizeable attack in the lowlands. It was a disaster. The Almohads swept aside an Almoravid column that had come out to meet them before Aghmat, and then chased their remnant all the way to Marrakesh. They laid siege to Marrakesh for forty days until, in April (or May) 1130, the Almoravids sallied from the city and crushed the Almohads in the bloody Battle of al-Buhayra (named after a large garden east of the city). The Almohads were thoroughly routed, with huge losses. Half their leadership was killed in action, and the survivors only just managed to scramble back to the mountains.

Ibn Tumart died in August 1130, shortly after the Almohads had suffered a significant defeat. Despite the loss of their charismatic leader, the Almohad movement did not collapse. The survival and consolidation of the movement during this critical period are attributed to the leadership and strategic acumen of Ibn Tumart’s successor, Abd al-Mu'min.

Ibn Tumart’s death was deliberately concealed for three years, a time that Almohad chroniclers described as a "ghayba," meaning "occultation." This secretive period likely provided Abd al-Mu'min with the opportunity to solidify his authority and secure his succession. Although he was of Zenata Berber origin from Tagra in present-day Algeria, and therefore an outsider among the Masmuda tribes of southern Morocco who formed the core of the movement, Abd al-Mu'min skillfully navigated the political landscape. He managed to eliminate his main rivals and reintegrate tribes that were wavering in their support.

By 1133, three years after Ibn Tumart’s death, Abd al-Mu'min had successfully established himself as the leader of the Almohad movement and was officially proclaimed "Caliph," ensuring the continuity and future success of the Almohad cause. This marked the beginning of a new era for the Almohads, as Abd al-Mu'min would lead them to greater conquests and the eventual overthrow of the Almoravid state.

Following 1133, Abd al-Mu'min rapidly expanded Almohad control across the Maghreb, while the Almoravid dynasty clung to their capital, Marrakesh. As the conflict between the two sides intensified, various tribes rallied either to the Almohads or the Almoravids. Initially, the Almohad operations were concentrated in the Atlas Mountains, but by 1139, they extended their reach to the Rif Mountains in northern Morocco. A significant early foothold beyond the mountains was the city of Taza, where Abd al-Mu'min established a citadel (ribat) and a Great Mosque around 1142, reinforcing Almohad influence in the region.

Phases of the Expansion of the Almohad empire. @ Omar-toons

The death of the Almoravid ruler, Ali ibn Yusuf, in 1143, and the ascension of his son, Tashfin ibn Ali, marked a turning point. By 1144, the tide decisively shifted in favor of the Almohads when the Zenata tribes in present-day western Algeria, along with some leaders of the Masufa tribe who had previously aligned with the Almoravids, joined the Almohad cause. This new support enabled the Almohads to achieve a decisive victory against Tashfin, capturing the city of Tlemcen in 1144. Tashfin retreated to Oran, which soon fell to the Almohads, and he died in March 1145 while attempting to escape their pursuit.

With the Almoravid army in retreat, Abd al-Mu'min's forces pursued them westward, capturing the city of Fez in 1146 after a nine-month siege. The decisive blow came in 1147 when the Almohads laid siege to Marrakesh for eleven months, finally capturing it and putting an end to the Almoravid dynasty. The last Almoravid ruler, Ishaq ibn Ali, was killed, marking the complete triumph of the Almohads over their rivals and establishing Abd al-Mu'min as the uncontested ruler of the region.

The Almohads' involvement in Al-Andalus began as early as 1145, when Ali ibn Isa ibn Maymun, the Almoravid naval commander of Cadiz, defected to 'Abd al-Mu'min. In the same year, Ibn Qasi, the ruler of Silves, was one of the first Andalusi leaders to appeal for Almohad intervention in Al-Andalus in order to stop the advance of the Christian kingdoms, whom the faltering Almoravids were unable to contain. In 1147 Abd al-Mu'min sent a military force led by another Almoravid defector, Abu Ishaq Barraz, who captured Algeciras and Tarifa before moving west to Niebla, Badajoz, and the Algarve. The Almoravids in Seville were besieged in 1147 until the city was captured in 1148 with local support.

Around this time a major rebellion centred in the Sous valley, led by Muhammad ibn 'Abd Allah al-Massi, shook the Almohad Empire and took on religious dimensions, rallying various tribes to counter the Almohads. After initial Almohad setbacks, the rebellion was eventually suppressed thanks to Abd al-Mu'min's lieutenant, Umar al-Hintati, who led a force that killed al-Massi.

Calahorra Tower in Cordoba. @ EmDee

The rebellion had taxed Almohad resources and resulted in temporary reversals in Al-Andalus too, but the Almohads soon went on the offensive again. Responding to local appeals from Muslim officials, they took control of Cordoba in 1149, saving the city from the forces of Alfonso VII. The remaining Almoravids in Al-Andalus, led by Yahya ibn Ghaniya, were by then confined to Granada. In 1150 or 1151 Abd al-Mu'min summoned the leaders and notables of Al-Andalus under his control to Ribat al-Fath (Rabat), where he made them pledge loyalty to him, apparently as a political demonstration of his power. The Almoravids in Granada were defeated in 1155 and retreated thereafter to the Balearic Islands, where they held out for several decades more.The Almohads transferred the capital of Muslim Iberia from Córdoba to Seville.

For much of the 1150s, however, Abd al-Mu'min concentrated his efforts on expanding eastwards in North Africa. 1151, he had reached Constantine where he confronted a coalition of Arab tribes that had been marching through Berber lands. Rather than the destruction of these tribes, he utilized them for his campaigns in al-Andalus and they also helped to quell any internal opposition from the family of Ibn Tumart. Abd al-Mu'min led his forces to conquer Tunis in 1159, going on to progressively establish control over Ifriqiya by conquering the cities of Mahdia (then held by Roger II of Sicily), Kairouan, and other coastal cities as far as Tripoli (in modern-day Libya). He then returned to Marrakesh and left for an expedition to Al-Andalus in 1161. Abd al-Mu'min had ordered the construction of a new citadel at Gibraltar, where he based himself during his stay in Al-Andalus.

The Almohad princes had a longer and more distinguished career than the Murabits. The successors of Abd al-Mumin, Abu Yaqub Yusuf (Yusuf I, ruled 1163–1184) and Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur (Yaʻqūb I, ruled 1184–1199), were both able men. Initially their government drove many Jewish and Christian subjects to take refuge in the growing Christian states of Portugal, Castile, and Aragon. Ultimately they became less fanatical than the Murabits, and Ya'qub al-Mansur was a highly accomplished man who wrote a good Arabic style and protected the philosopher Averroes. His title of "al-Manṣūr" ("the Victorious") was earned by his victory over Alfonso VIII of Castile in the Battle of Alarcos (1195).

In 1163 the caliph Abu Ya'qub Yusuf made the Alcazar his main residence in the region. He further expanded and embellished the palace complex in 1169, adding six new enclosures to the north, south, and west sides of the existing palaces. The works were carried out by architects Ahmad ibn Baso and 'Ali al-Ghumari. With the exception of the walls, nearly all previous buildings were demolished, and a total of approximately twelve palaces were built. Among the new structures was a very large garden courtyard, now known as the Patio del Crucero, which stood in the old Abbadid enclosure. Between 1171 and 1198 an enormous new congregational mosque was built on the north side of the Alcazar (later transformed in to the current Cathedral of Seville). A shipyard was also built nearby in 1184 and a textiles market in 1196.

The Battle of Faḥṣ al-Jullāb was fought on Thursday 15 October 1165 between the invading Almohads and the king of Murcia, Ibn Mardanīsh. An Almohad army under sayyids Abū Ḥafṣ ʿUmar and Abū Saʿīd ʿUthmān, the brothers of the Caliph Abū Yaʿḳūb Yūsuf, went on the offensive against Ibn Mardanīsh in the summer of 1165. They captured Andújar in September, harried Galera, Caravaca, Baza and Sierra de Segura, then captured Cúllar and Vélez on their approach to Murcia.

Abu Yaqub Yusuf invaded Iberia, conquering al-Andalus and ravaging Valencia and Catalonia. The following year he established himself in Seville.

Yusuf I transported twenty thousand soldiers across the Strait of Gibraltar, aiming to firm up his hold on the Muslim territories. Within the year, he had whipped most of the Muslim cities into line. In 1172, he made his first foray against the Christian position. He laid siege to the city of Huete—and failed.

There were multiple reasons for the failure. At least one eyewitness suggests that Yusuf I . . . Wasn’t particularly engaged in the siege; . . . When the news went around the Almohad camp that Alfonso VIII of Castile (now eighteen and ruling in his own name) was approaching to lift the siege, the Almohads gave up their position and retreated. It was an embarrassing defeat for Yusuf I, although not fatal; he would soon regather himself and relaunch the war.

But Huete was a turning point for the Christian kingdoms, which now began to readjust their attitudes towards each other. By 1177, all five of the Christian kings had sworn out treaties or created marriage alliances. The political unity of Alfonso the Battler had become a unity of purpose; and the latticework of allegiances woven by the Christian enemy would prove almost impossible for the Almohads to penetrate.

The Banū Ghāniya were descendants of the Almoravids who established a principality in the Balearic Islands after the fall of the Almoravid state in the mid-twelfth century. In 1184 they invaded North Africa and fought against the Almohads in a struggle which lasted until the 1230s and ranged from Tripoli to Sijilmāsa under the amirs ʿAlī (1184-1187) and Yaḥyā b. Ghāniya (1188-1235?).

The arrival of the Banū Ghāniya in North Africa coincided with the conquest of Almohad Ifrīqiya (Tunisia) by the Ayyubid amir Sharaf al-Dīn Qarāqūsh. For several years Ayyubid forces fought side by side with the Banū Ghāniya and various Arab tribes against the Almohads until Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn made peace with the latter in 1190. The tenacious resistance of the Banū Ghāniya and their allies, though ultimately unsuccessful, put an end to Almohad dreams of an empire embracing all of northwest Africa and forced them to eventually relinquish their hold on Ifrīqiya and the Central Maghrib which passed under the rule of the local Hafsid and Zayyanid dynasties in the first half of the thirteenth century.

The siege of Santarém, lasted from June 1184 to July 1184. In the spring of 1184, Abu Yaqub Yusuf assembled an army, crossed the straits of Gibraltar and marched to Seville. From there he marched towards Badajoz and headed west to besiege Santarém, Portugal, which was defended by Afonso I of Portugal. Upon hearing of Abu Yusuf's attack, Ferdinand II of León marched his troops to Santarém to support his father-in-law, Afonso I.

Abu Yusuf, believing he had sufficient troops to maintain the siege, sent orders for part of his army to march to Lisbon and lay siege to that city too. The orders were misinterpreted and his army, seeing large contingents of men leaving the battle, became confused and started to retreat. Abu Yusuf, in an attempt to rally his troops, was wounded by a crossbow bolt and died on 29 July 1184.

Battle of Alarcos was a battle between the Almohads led by Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur and King Alfonso VIII of Castile. It resulted in the defeat of the Castilian forces and their subsequent retreat to Toledo, whereas the Almohads reconquered Trujillo, Montánchez, and Talavera.

In 1212, the Almohad Caliph Muhammad al-Nasir, who had succeeded his father, al-Mansur, in 1199, led a significant military campaign against the Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula. Initially, al-Nasir's forces made advances to the north, but they suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in the Sierra Morena. The battle was fought against a coalition of Christian forces led by the kings of Castile, Aragón, and Navarre. This defeat marked a turning point, halting the Almohad advance into Christian territories, although internal disorganization among the Christian kingdoms prevented them from immediately capitalizing on their victory. The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa was an important turning point in the Reconquista and in the medieval history of Spain

Almohads after 1212. @ Maciej Pokrzywa

Shortly before his death in 1213, al-Nasir appointed his ten-year-old son, Yusuf II "al-Mustansir," as his successor. Due to the young caliph's age, the Almohad state entered a period of effective regency. During this time, power was managed by a governing oligarchy consisting of elder members of the ruling family, palace officials, and prominent nobles. To maintain stability and protect the realm from further Christian incursions, Almohad ministers pursued a policy of negotiating truces with the Christian kingdoms. These agreements largely held for the next fifteen years, with the notable exception of the loss of Alcácer do Sal to the Kingdom of Portugal in 1217. This period marked a time of relative peace, but the defeat at Las Navas de Tolosa had already signaled the beginning of the decline of Almohad power in the Iberian Peninsula.

In early 1224, the young Almohad Caliph Yusuf II "al-Mustansir" died unexpectedly in an accident, leaving no heirs. This sudden loss created a power vacuum, which the palace bureaucrats in Marrakesh, led by the wazir Uthman ibn Jam'i, quickly sought to fill. They engineered the election of Yusuf's elderly grand-uncle, Abd al-Wahid I 'al-Makhlu,' as the new Almohad caliph. However, this swift appointment stirred unrest within other branches of the ruling family, particularly among the brothers of the late Caliph al-Nasir, who held power in al-Andalus.

The first challenge emerged from al-Nasir's brother, the governor of Murcia, who declared himself Caliph Abdallah al-Adil. Supported by his siblings, al-Adil rapidly seized control of al-Andalus. His chief advisor, Abu Zayd ibn Yujjan, exploited his network of contacts in Marrakesh, orchestrating the deposition and assassination of Abd al-Wahid I and the expulsion of the al-Jami'i clan. This internal coup marked a significant turning point for the Almohad dynasty, as it represented the first instance of internal power struggles and bloodshed within the Almohad leadership.

The assassination of Abd al-Wahid I and al-Adil's seizure of power fractured the unity of the Almohad clan, which had previously remained cohesive and loyal to dynastic precedence. Caliph al-Adil's violent breach of tradition undermined his legitimacy in the eyes of many Almohad leaders, sparking dissent within the ranks. One prominent dissenter was his cousin, Abd Allah al-Bayyasi, known as "the Baezan," the Almohad governor of Jaén. Disillusioned by al-Adil’s actions, al-Bayyasi took a small group of followers and established a rebel camp in the hills around Baeza.

Seeking allies against his cousin, al-Bayyasi formed an alliance with Ferdinand III of Castile, who had previously remained relatively inactive. Meanwhile, al-Adil's primary focus shifted to Marrakesh, where another internal challenge was brewing, as discontented Almohad sheikhs rallied behind Yahya, a son of the late Caliph al-Nasir. This fragmentation marked the beginning of serious internal strife, which would further weaken the Almohad state and accelerate its decline in both al-Andalus and the Maghreb.

The departure of al-Ma'mun in 1228 marked the end of the Almohad era in Spain. Ibn Hud and the other local Andalusian strongmen were unable to stem the rising flood of Christian attacks, launched almost yearly by Sancho II of Portugal, Alfonso IX of León, Ferdinand III of Castile and James I of Aragon. The next twenty years saw a massive advance in the Christian Reconquista – the old great Andalusian citadels fell in a grand sweep: Mérida and Badajoz in 1230 (to Leon), Majorca in 1230 (to Aragon), Beja in 1234 (to Portugal), Cordova in 1236 (to Castile), Valencia in 1238 (to Aragon), Niebla-Huelva in 1238 (to Leon), Silves in 1242 (to Portugal), Murcia in 1243 (to Castile), Jaén in 1246 (to Castile), Alicante in 1248 (to Castile), culminating in the fall of the greatest of Andalusian cities, the ex-Almohad capital of Seville, into Christian hands in 1248. Ferdinand III of Castile entered Seville as a conqueror on December 22, 1248.

The Andalusians were helpless before this onslaught. Ibn Hudd had attempted to check the Leonese advance early on, but most of his Andalusian army was destroyed at the battle of Alange in 1230. Ibn Hud scrambled to move remaining arms and men to save threatened or besieged Andalusian citadels, but with so many attacks at once, it was a hopeless endeavor. After Ibn Hud's death in 1238, some of the Andalusian cities, in a last-ditch effort to save themselves, offered themselves once again to the Almohads, but to no avail. The Almohads would not return.

In 1229 Ifriqiyas governor, Abu Zakariya returned to Tunis after conquering Constantine and Béjaïa the same year and declared independence. After the split of the Hafsids from the Almohads under Abu Zakariya (1228–1249), Abu Zakariya organised the administration in Ifriqiya (the Roman province of Africa in modern Maghreb; today's Tunisia, eastern Algeria and western Libya) and built the city of Tunis up as the economic and cultural centre of the empire. At the same time, many Muslims from Al-Andalus fleeing the Christian Reconquista of Iberia were absorbed. He subsequently annexed Tripoli in 1234, Algiers in 1235, Chelif River 1236, and subdued important tribal confederations of the Berbers from 1235 to 1238.

He also conquered the Kingdom of Tlemcen in July 1242 forcing the Sultan of Tlemcen his vassals.

In their African holdings, the Almohads encouraged the establishment of Christians even in Fez, and after the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa they occasionally entered into alliances with the kings of Castile. They were successful in expelling the garrisons placed in some of the coast towns by the Norman kings of Sicily. The history of their decline differs from that of the Almoravids, whom they had displaced. They were not assailed by a great religious movement, but lost territories, piecemeal, by the revolt of tribes and districts. Their most effective enemies were the Banu Marin (Marinids) who founded the next dynasty. The last representative of the line, Idris II, 'al-Wathiq', was reduced to the possession of Marrakesh, where he was murdered by a slave in 1269.

The Almohad ideology preached by Ibn Tumart is described by Amira Bennison as a "sophisticated hybrid form of Islam that wove together strands from Hadith science, Zahiri and Shafi'i fiqh, Ghazalian social actions (hisba), and spiritual engagement with Shi'i notions of the imam and mahdi". In terms of Muslim jurisprudence, the state gave recognition to the Zahiri (ظاهري) school of thought, though Shafi'ites were also given a measure of authority at times.

The ceremonial main gate of the Kasbah of the Udayas (in Rabat), added to the fortress by Ya'qub al-Mansur in the late 1190s. @ Robert Prazeres

The Almohad dynasty embraced a style of cursive Maghrebi script known today as "Maghrebi thuluth" as an official style used in manuscripts, coinage, documents, and architecture. Scribes and calligraphers of the Almohad period also started to illuminate words and phrases in manuscripts for emphasis, using gold leaf and lapis lazuli. During the Almohad dynasty, the act of bookbinding itself took on great importance, with a notable instance of the Almohad caliph Abd al-Mu'min bringing in artisans for a celebration of the binding of a Qur'an imported from Cordoba. Books were most frequently bound in goatskin leather and decorated with polygonal interlacing, goffering, and stamping.

The Almohads initially eschewed the production of luxury textiles and silks, but eventually they too engaged in this production. Almohad textiles, like earlier Almoravid examples, were often decorated with a grid of roundels filled with ornamental designs or Arabic epigraphy.

Along with the Almoravid period preceding it, the Almohad period is considered one of the most formative stages of Moroccan and Moorish architecture, establishing many of the forms and motifs that were refined in subsequent centuries. The main sites of Almohad architecture and art include Fes, Marrakesh, Rabat and Seville.