Peter implemented sweeping reforms aimed at modernizing Russia. Heavily influenced by his advisors from Western Europe, Peter reorganized the Russian army along modern lines and dreamed of making Russia a maritime power. Peter implemented social modernization in an absolute manner by introducing French and western dress to his court and requiring courtiers, state officials, and the military to shave their beards and adopt modern clothing styles. In his process to westernize Russia, he wanted members of his family to marry other European royalty. As part of his reforms, Peter started an industrialization effort that was slow but eventually successful. Russian manufacturing and main exports were based on the mining and lumber industries. To improve his nation's position on the seas, Peter sought to gain more maritime outlets. His only outlet at the time was the White Sea at Arkhangelsk. The Baltic Sea was at the time controlled by <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Sweden' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Sweden</a> in the north, while the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea were controlled by the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Ottoman-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Ottoman Empire</a> and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Safavid-Persia' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Safavid Empire</a> respectively in the south.

Peter modernizes Russia

The Russo-Persian War of 1722–1723, known in Russian historiography as the Persian campaign of Peter the Great, was a war between the Russian Empire and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Safavid-Persia' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Safavid</a> Iran, triggered by the tsar's attempt to expand Russian influence in the Caspian and Caucasus regions and to prevent its rival, the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Ottoman-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Ottoman Empire</a>, from territorial gains in the region at the expense of declining Safavid <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Iran' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Iran</a>.Before the war, the nominal Russian border was the Terek River. South of that, the Khanates of Dagestan were nominal vassals of Iran. The ultimate cause of the war was Russia's desire to expand to the southeast and the temporary weakness of Iran. The Russian victory ratified for Safavid Iran's cession of their territories in the North Caucasus, South Caucasus and contemporary northern Iran to Russia, comprising the cities of Derbent (southern Dagestan) and Baku and their nearby surrounding lands, as well as the provinces of Gilan, Shirvan, Mazandaran and Astarabad conform the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1723).

Russo-Persian War (1722–1723) 

The First Kamchatka expedition was the first Russian expedition to explore the Asian Pacific coast. It was commissioned by Peter the Great in 1724 and was led by Vitus Bering. Afield from 1725 to 1731, it was Russia’s first naval scientific expedition. It confirmed the presence of a strait (now known as Bering Strait) between Asia and America and was followed in 1732 by the Second Kamchatka Expedition.  

First Kamchatka expedition 

Peter died in 1725, leaving an unsettled succession. After a short reign of his widow Catherine I, the crown passed to empress Anna. She slowed down the reforms and led a successful war against the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Ottoman-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Ottoman Empire</a>. This resulted in a significant weakening of the Crimean Khanate, an Ottoman vassal and long-term Russian adversary.

Empress Anna 

The Treaty of Kyakhta (or Kiakhta), along with the Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689), regulated the relations between Imperial Russia and the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Qing-dynasty' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Qing Empire of China</a> until the mid-19th century. It was signed by Tulišen and Count Sava Lukich Raguzinskii-Vladislavich at the border city of Kyakhta on 23 August 1727.

Treaty of Kyakhta 

The casus belli were the raids of the Crimean Tatars on Cossack Hetmanate (<a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Ukraine' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Ukraine</a>) in the end of 1735 and the Crimean khan's military campaign in the Caucasus.The war also represented Russia's continuing struggle for access to the Black Sea. In July 1737, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Austria' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Austria</a> entered the war against the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Ottoman-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Ottoman Empire</a>, but was defeated a number of times, amongst others in the Battle of Banja Luka on 4 August 1737, Battle of Grocka at 18, 21–22 July 1739, and then lost Belgrade after an Ottoman siege from 18 July to September 1739. With the imminent threat of a Swedish invasion, and Ottoman alliances with Prussia, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Poland' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Poland</a> and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Sweden' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Sweden</a>, forced Russia to sign the Treaty of Niš with Turkey on 29 September, which ended the war. The peace treaty granted Azov to Russia and consolidated Russia's control over the Zaporizhia. For Austria, the war proved a stunning defeat. The Russian forces were much more successful on the field, but they lost tens of thousands to disease. The loss and desertion figures for the Ottomans are impossible to estimate.

Russo-Turkish War

The <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russian-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russo</a>-<a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Sweden' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Swedish</a> War of 1741–1743, often called the 'War of the Hats,' was largely driven by Swedish aspirations to regain territories lost to Russia during the Great Northern War (1700–1721). The Swedish “Hats” political faction, in alliance with <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-France' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>France</a>, saw the war as an opportunity to reclaim their lost lands and diminish Russian influence in the region. France, involved in the War of the Austrian Succession, encouraged Sweden to fight, hoping to divert Russia’s focus from supporting <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Austria' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Austria</a>.Swedish preparations for war were weak from the start. Swedish diplomats had already stirred nationalist anger by accusing Russia of assassinating Swedish envoy Malcolm Sinclair in 1739. Yet, Swedish defenses in Finland had been neglected, and by the time the war began in August 1741, Sweden's army lacked both cohesion and resources. The Swedish plan to attack Vyborg and move toward St. Petersburg faltered as Swedish troops and ships faced delays, outbreaks of illness, and inadequate supplies. Russia took advantage of Sweden's unpreparedness, and Field Marshal Peter Lacy led a Russian offensive, swiftly defeating Swedish forces at the Battle of Villmanstrand in August 1741.In early 1742, after a temporary armistice, Russia resumed its offensive, advancing into Finland. The Swedish army retreated in disarray, abandoning key defensive positions. By August, Russian forces had surrounded Helsinki, and Swedish generals Lewenhaupt and Buddenbrock, accused of mishandling the campaign, were summoned to Stockholm and later executed.Peace negotiations began in Åbo (Turku) in late 1742, complicated by Russia's political goals. Empress Elizabeth sought to install her relative, Adolf Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, as the Swedish heir. Though the Swedish Hats faction agreed to this demand, Russia’s continued occupation of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Finland' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Finland</a> added pressure for a final settlement. In 1743, with Swedish resistance waning, both sides signed the Treaty of Åbo, ceding to Russia the Finnish towns of Lappeenranta and Hamina and lands east of the Kymi River. This further weakened Sweden’s status as a power in Northern Europe.The treaty solidified Russian control over a significant portion of southeastern Finland, adding to earlier territorial gains from the Treaty of Nystad. This region later became part of the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland, underscoring Russia's growing influence in Scandinavia and signaling the decline of Sweden's imperial ambitions.

Russo-Swedish War (1741-1743)

During the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), Russia emerged as a significant European power, aligning itself with <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Austria' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Austria</a> and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-France' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>France</a> in a coalition against <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Germany' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Prussia</a> and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-England' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Britain</a>. The <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russian-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russian Empire</a> feared Prussia's ambition on the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Poland' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Polish</a>-<a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Lithuania' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Lithuanian</a> Commonwealth. Russia's primary objectives were to curb Prussian influence and expand its own territorial holdings, particularly in Eastern Europe. The Russians and the Austrians were determined to reduce the power of Prussia, the new threat on their doorstep, and Austria was anxious to regain Silesia, lost to Prussia in the War of the Austrian Succession. Along with France, Russia and Austria agreed in 1756 to mutual defence and an attack by Austria and Russia on Prussia, subsidized by France. Empress Elizabeth of Russia, determined to limit Frederick the Great's power, committed substantial resources and troops to the conflict, leading to several Russian victories, including a notable win at the Battle of Kunersdorf in 1759. The Russians defeated the Prussians several times in the war, but the Russians lacked the necessary logistical capability to follow up their victories with lasting gains, and in this sense, the salvation of the House of Hohenzollern was due more to Russian weakness with respect to logistics than to Prussian strength on the battlefield. The supply system that allowed the Russians to advance into the Balkans during the war with the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Ottoman-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Ottomans</a> in 1787–92, Marshal Alexander Suvorov to campaign effectively in Italy and Switzerland in 1798–99, and for the Russians to fight across Germany and France in 1813–14 to take Paris was created directly in response to the logistic problems experienced by the Russians in the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Seven-Years-War' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Seven Years' War</a>. The taxation needed for war caused the Russian people considerable hardship, being added to the taxation of salt and alcohol begun by Empress Elizabeth in 1759 to complete her addition to the Winter Palace. Like <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Sweden' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Sweden</a>, Russia concluded a separate peace with Prussia.Despite these successes, Russia’s gains were short-lived. When Empress Elizabeth died in 1762, her successor, Peter III, who admired Frederick, withdrew Russia from the war and returned occupied Prussian territories, which altered the balance of power and saved Prussia from likely defeat. Peter’s decision was unpopular in Russia and, after his assassination, his successor, Catherine the Great, refocused on consolidating and expanding Russian influence elsewhere. The war, however, had cemented Russia’s role as a major player in European affairs, setting the stage for its significant geopolitical influence in the later 18th century.

Seven Years' War

Peter III Fyodorovich ruled as <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russian-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Emperor of Russia</a> for only six months in 1762, yet his short reign left an enduring mark on Russian history due to his unusual policies and the dramatic events that led to his downfall.Born Charles Peter Ulrich in Kiel, Germany, Peter was the grandson of Peter the Great and the great-grandson of Sweden's Charles XI. His early life was marked by his dual lineage, German upbringing, and eventual relocation to Russia when his maternal aunt, Empress Elizabeth, named him heir to the Russian throne. However, Peter struggled to integrate into Russian society, spoke little Russian, and held a strong affinity for <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Germany' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Prussia</a>—an allegiance that would have significant political repercussions.When Peter ascended the throne in January 1762, Russia was heavily involved in the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Seven-Years-War' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Seven Years’ War</a> against Prussia. Almost immediately, Peter, a staunch admirer of Frederick the Great, made the controversial decision to withdraw from the war and shift Russia's allegiance from <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Austria' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Austria</a> to Prussia. This sudden reversal, known as the 'Second Miracle of the House of Brandenburg,' angered both Russian nobles and military leaders, undermining Peter's support among key factions.Domestically, Peter’s policies aimed at modernization, despite his reputation for eccentricity and unpopularity. He instituted progressive reforms, including promoting religious tolerance, establishing a state bank, and reducing the nobility's monopoly on trade. His legal reforms sought to protect serfs from extreme abuses by landowners, a move unusual for Russian rulers of the time. However, Peter’s efforts were often overshadowed by his perceived German favoritism, alienating the Russian aristocracy and church, and reinforcing his outsider status.Peter’s unpopularity grew rapidly, and his relationship with his wife, Catherine, was infamously strained. By mid-1762, Catherine, with support from powerful military officers, notably Grigori Orlov and his brothers, orchestrated a coup. Peter attempted to flee but was captured and forced to abdicate. Within days, he was imprisoned at Ropsha, where he died under mysterious circumstances. While some accounts suggest assassination, the exact cause of his death remains uncertain.

Peter III of Russia

Catherine II (born Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst; 2 May 1729 in Stettin – 17 November 1796 in Saint Petersburg), most commonly known as Catherine the Great, was empress regnant of All Russia from 1762 until 1796 – the country's longest-ruling female leader. She came to power following a coup d'état that overthrew her husband and second cousin, Peter III. Under her reign, Russia grew larger, its culture was revitalised, and it was recognised as one of the great powers of Europe. Catherine reformed the administration of Russian guberniyas (governorates), and many new cities and towns were founded on her orders. An admirer of Peter the Great, Catherine continued to modernise Russia along Western European lines. The period of Catherine the Great's rule, the Catherinian Era, is considered a Golden Age of Russia. Construction of many mansions of the nobility, in the classical style endorsed by the empress, changed the face of the country. She enthusiastically supported the ideals of the Enlightenment and is often included in the ranks of the enlightened despots.

Catherine the Great 

The Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 was a major armed conflict that saw Russian arms largely victorious against the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Ottoman-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Ottoman Empire</a>. Russia's victory brought Kabardia, part of Moldavia, the Yedisan between the rivers Bug and Dnieper, and Crimea into the Russian sphere of influence. Though a series of victories accrued by the Russian Empire led to substantial territorial conquests, including direct conquest over much of the Pontic–Caspian steppe, less Ottoman territory was directly annexed than might otherwise be expected due to a complex struggle within the European diplomatic system to maintain a balance of power that was acceptable to other European states and avoided direct Russian hegemony over Eastern Europe. Nonetheless, Russia was able to take advantage of the weakened Ottoman Empire, the end of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Seven-Years-War' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Seven Years' War</a>, and the withdrawal of France from Polish affairs to assert itself as one of the continent's primary military powers. The war left the Russian Empire in a strengthened position to expand its territory and maintain hegemony over the Polish–<a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Lithuania' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Lithuanian</a> Commonwealth, eventually leading to the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Poland' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>First Partition of Poland</a>.

Russo-Turkish War (1768-1774)

In March 1783, Prince Potemkin made a rhetorical push to encourage Empress Catherine to annex Crimea. Having just returned from Crimea, he told her that many Crimeans would 'happily' submit to Russian rule. Encouraged by this news, Empress Catherine issued a formal proclamation of annexation on 19 April 1783. Tatars did not resist the annexation. After years of turmoil, the Crimeans lacked the resources and the will to continue fighting. Many fled the peninsula, leaving for Anatolia. Crimea was incorporated into the Empire as the Taurida Oblast. Later that Year, the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Ottoman-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Ottoman Empire</a> signed an agreement with Russia that recognised the loss of Crimea and other territories that had been held by the Khanate.

Crimean Khanate annexed 

Potemkin's Black Sea Fleet was a massive undertaking for its time. By 1787, the British ambassador reported twenty-seven ships of the line. It put Russia on a naval footing with Spain, though far behind the Royal Navy. The period represented the peak of Russia's naval power relative to other European states. Potemkin also rewarded hundreds of thousands of settlers who moved into his territories. It is estimated that by 1782 the populations of Novorossiya and Azov had doubled during a period of 'exceptionally rapid' development.  Immigrants included Russians, foreigners, Cossacks and controversially Jews. Though the immigrants were not always happy in their new surroundings, on at least one occasion Potemkin intervened directly to ensure families received the cattle to which they were entitled. Outside of Novorossiya he drew up the Azov-Mozdok defense line, constructing forts at Georgievsk, Stavropol and elsewhere and ensured that the whole of the line was settled.  

Colonization of Novorossiya 

The Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1792 involved an unsuccessful attempt by the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Ottoman-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Ottoman Empire</a> to regain lands lost to the Russian Empire in the course of the previous Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774). It took place concomitantly with the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Austria' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Austro</a>-Turkish War (1788–1791) In 1787, the Ottomans demanded that the Russians evacuate the Crimea and give up their holdings near the Black Sea, which Russia saw as a casus belli. Russia declared war on 19 August 1787, and the Ottomans imprisoned the Russian ambassador, Yakov Bulgakov. Ottoman preparations were inadequate and the moment was ill-chosen, as Russia and Austria were now in alliance. Accordingly, the Treaty of Jassy was signed on 9 January 1792, recognizing Russia's 1783 annexation of the Crimean Khanate. Yedisan (Odessa and Ochakov) was also ceded to Russia, and the Dniester was made the Russian frontier in Europe, while the Russian Asiatic frontier—the Kuban River—remained unchanged.

Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)

The Russo-Swedish War of 1788–1790 was fought between <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Sweden' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Sweden</a> and Russia from June 1788 to August 1790. The war was ended by the Treaty of Värälä on 14 August 1790. The war was, overall, mostly insignificant for the parties involved. The conflict was initiated by King Gustav III of Sweden for domestic political reasons, as he believed that a short war would leave the opposition with no recourse but to support him. Catherine II regarded the war against her Swedish cousin as a substantial distraction, as her land troops were tied up in the war against Turkey, and she was likewise concerned with revolutionary events unfolding in the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Poland' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Polish</a>–<a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Lithuania' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Lithuanian</a> Commonwealth (the 3 May Constitution) and in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-France' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>France</a> (the French Revolution). The Swedish attack foiled the Russian plans of sending its navy into the Mediterranean to support its forces fighting the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Ottoman-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Ottomans</a>, as it was needed to protect the capital, Saint Petersburg.

Russo-Swedish War (1788-1790)

The Polish–Russian War of 1792 was fought between the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Poland' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Polish</a>–<a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Lithuania' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Lithuanian</a> Commonwealth on one side, and the Targowica Confederation and the Russian Empire under Catherine the Great on the other. The war took place in two theaters: northern in Lithuania and southern in what is now <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Ukraine' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Ukraine</a>. In both, the Polish forces retreated before the numerically superior Russian forces, though they offered significantly more resistance in the south, thanks to the effective leadership of Polish commanders Prince Józef Poniatowski and Tadeusz Kościuszko. During the three-month-long struggle several battles were fought, but no side scored a decisive victory. Russia took 250,000 square kilometres (97,000 sq mi), while Prussia took 58,000 square kilometres (22,000 sq mi) of the Commonwealth's territory. This event reduced Poland's population to only one-third of what it was before the First Partition.

Polish–Russian War of 1792

The Kościuszko Uprising, also known as the Polish Uprising of 1794 and the Second Polish War, was an uprising against the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia led by Tadeusz Kościuszko in the Polish–<a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Lithuania' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Lithuanian</a> Commonwealth and the Prussian partition in 1794. It was a failed attempt to liberate the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from Russian influence after the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Poland' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Second Partition of Poland</a> (1793) and the creation of the Targowica Confederation. The uprising ended with the Russian occupation of Warsaw.

Kościuszko Uprising

On 16 November 1796, Catherine rose early in the morning and had her usual morning <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Story-of-Coffee' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>coffee</a>, soon settling down to work on papers; she told her lady's maid, Maria Perekusikhina, that she had slept better than she had in a long time. Sometime after 9:00 she was found on the floor with her face purplish, her pulse weak, her breathing shallow and laboured. She died the following evening around 9:45pm. Catherine's son Paul succeeded to the throne. He reigned until 1801 when he was assassinated. Alexander I succeeded to the throne on 23 March 1801 and was crowned in the Kremlin on 15 September of that Year.

Alexander becomes emperor 

The <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/War-of-the-Third-Coalition' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>War of the Third Coalition</a> was a European conflict spanning the years 1803 to 1806. During the war, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-France' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>France</a> and its client states under Napoleon I, defeated an alliance, the Third Coalition, made up of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-England' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>United Kingdom</a>, the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Germany' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Holy Roman Empire</a>, the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russian-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russian Empire</a>, Naples, Sicily and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Sweden' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Sweden</a>. Prussia remained neutral during the war. In what is widely regarded as the greatest victory achieved by Napoleon, the Grande Armée of France defeated a larger Russian and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Austria' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Austrian</a> army led by Emperor Alexander I and Holy Roman Emperor Francis II at the Battle of Austerlitz.

War of the Third Coalition

The war broke out in 1805–1806 against the background of the Napoleonic Wars. In 1806, Sultan Selim III, encouraged by the Russian defeat at Austerlitz and advised by the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-France' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>French Empire</a>, deposed the pro-Russian Constantine Ypsilantis as Hospodar of the Principality of Wallachia and Alexander Mourousis as Hospodar of Moldavia, both Ottoman vassal states. Simultaneously, the French Empire occupied Dalmatia and threatened to penetrate the Danubian principalities at any time. In order to safeguard the Russian border against a possible French attack, a 40,000-strong Russian contingent advanced into Moldavia and Wallachia. The Sultan reacted by blocking the Dardanelles to Russian ships and declared war on Russia. According to the Treaty, the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Ottoman-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Ottoman Empire</a> ceded the eastern half of Moldavia to Russia (which renamed the territory as Bessarabia), although it had committed to protecting that region. Russia became a new power in the lower Danube area, and had an economically, diplomatically, and militarily profitable frontier. The treaty was approved by Alexander I of Russia on June 11, some 13 days before Napoleon's invasion of Russia began. The commanders were able to get many of the Russian soldiers in the Balkans back to the western areas before the expected attack of Napoleon.

Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812) 

The Battle of Friedland (June 14, 1807) was a major engagement of the Napoleonic Wars between the armies of the French Empire commanded by Napoleon I and the armies of the Russian Empire led by Count von Bennigsen. Napoleon and the French obtained a decisive victory that routed much of the Russian army, which retreated chaotically over the Alle River by the end of the fighting. The battlefield is located in modern-day Kaliningrad Oblast, near the town of Pravdinsk, Russia. On June 19, Emperor Alexander sent an envoy to seek an armistice with the French. Napoleon assured the envoy that the Vistula River represented the natural borders between French and Russian influence in Europe. On that basis, the two emperors began peace negotiations at the town of Tilsit after meeting on an iconic raft on the River Niemen.  

Battle of Friedland 

The Finnish War was fought between the Kingdom of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Sweden' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Sweden</a> and the Russian Empire from 21 February 1808 to 17 September 1809. As a result of the war, the eastern third of Sweden was established as the autonomous Grand Duchy of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Finland' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Finland</a> within the Russian Empire. Other notable effects were the Swedish parliament's adoption of a new constitution and the establishment of the House of Bernadotte, the new Swedish royal house, in 1818.

Finnish War

The <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/French-Invasion-of-Russia' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>French invasion of Russia</a> was begun by Napoleon to force Russia back into the Continental blockade of the United Kingdom. On 24 June 1812 and the following days, the first wave of the Grande Armée crossed the border into Russia with around 400,000–450,000 soldiers, the opposing Russian field forces amounted to around 180,000–200,000 at this time. Through a series of long forced marches, Napoleon pushed his army rapidly through Western Russia in a futile attempt to destroy the retreating Russian Army of Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, winning just the Battle of Smolensk in August.Under its new Commander in Chief Mikhail Kutuzov, the Russian Army continued to retreat employing attrition warfare against Napoleon forcing the invaders to rely on a supply system that was incapable of feeding their large army in the field. On 14 September, Napoleon and his army of about 100,000 men occupied Moscow, only to find it abandoned, and the city was soon ablaze. Out of an original force of 615,000, only 110,000 frostbitten and half-starved survivors stumbled back into France.The Russian victory over the French Army in 1812 was a significant blow to Napoleon's ambitions of European dominance. This war was the reason the other coalition allies triumphed once and for all over Napoleon. His army was shattered and morale was low, both for French troops still in Russia, fighting battles just before the campaign ended, and for the troops on other fronts.

French invasion of Russia 

The Caucasian War of 1817–1864 was an invasion of the Caucasus by the Russian Empire which resulted in Russia's annexation of the areas of the North Caucasus, and the ethnic cleansing of Circassians. It consisted of a series of military actions waged by the Empire against the native peoples of the Caucasus including the Chechens, Adyghe, Abkhaz–Abaza, Ubykhs, Kumyks and Dagestanians as Russia sought to expand. Among the Muslims, resistance to the Russians was described as jihad. Russian control of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Georgia' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Georgian</a> Military Highway in the center divided the Caucasian War into the Russo-Circassian War in the west and the Murid War in the east. Other territories of the Caucasus (comprising contemporary eastern Georgia, southern Dagestan, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Armenia' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Armenia</a> and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Azerbaijan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Azerbaijan</a>) were incorporated into the Russian Empire at various times in the 19th century as a result of Russian wars with <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Iran' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Persia</a>. The remaining part, western Georgia, was taken by the Russians from the Ottomans during the same period.

Caucasian War 

The Decembrist Revolt took place in Russia on 26 December 1825, during the interregnum following the sudden death of Emperor Alexander I. Alexander's heir apparent, Konstantin, had privately declined the succession, unknown to the court, and his younger brother Nicholas decided to take power as Emperor Nicholas I, pending formal confirmation. While some of the army had sworn loyalty to Nicholas, a force of about 3,000 troops tried to mount a military coup in favour of Konstantin. The rebels, although weakened by dissension between their leaders, confronted the loyalists outside the Senate building in the presence of a large crowd. In the confusion, the Emperor's envoy, Mikhail Miloradovich, was assassinated. Eventually, the loyalists opened fire with heavy artillery, which scattered the rebels. Many were sentenced to hanging, prison, or exile to Siberia. The conspirators became known as the Decembrists.

Decembrist Revolt 

The Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828 was the last major military conflict between the Russian Empire and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Iran' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Persia</a>. After the Treaty of Gulistan that concluded the previous Russo-Persian War in 1813, peace reigned in the Caucasus for thirteen years. However, Fath 'Ali Shah, constantly in need of foreign subsidies, relied on the advice of British agents, who advised him to reconquer the territories lost to Russian Empire and pledged their support for military action. The matter was decided upon in spring 1826, when a bellicose party of Abbas Mirza prevailed in Tehran and the Russian minister, Aleksandr Sergeyevich Menshikov, was placed under house arrest. The war ended in 1828 following the occupation of Tabriz. The war had even more disastrous results for Persia than the 1804-1813 war, as the ensuing Treaty of Turkmenchay stripped Persia of its last remaining territories in the Caucasus, which comprised all of modern <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Armenia' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Armenia</a>, the southern remainder of modern <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Azerbaijan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Azerbaijan</a>, and modern Igdir in Turkey. The war marked the end of the era of the Russo-Persian Wars, with Russia now the unquestioned dominant power in the Caucasus.

Russo-Persian War (1826–1828) 

The Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829 was sparked by the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Greek-War-of-Independence' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Greek War of Independence</a> of 1821–1829. War broke out after the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Ottoman-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Ottoman</a> Sultan Mahmud II closed the Dardanelles to Russian ships and revoked the 1826 Akkerman Convention in retaliation for Russian participation in October 1827 in the Battle of Navarino. The Russians laid prolonged sieges to three key Ottoman citadels in modern <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Bulgaria' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Bulgaria</a>: Shumla, Varna, and Silistra. With the support of the Black Sea Fleet under Aleksey Greig, Varna was captured on 29 September. The siege of Shumla proved much more problematic, as the 40,000-strong Ottoman garrison outnumbered the Russian forces. Faced with several defeats, the Sultan decided to sue for peace. The Treaty of Adrianople signed on 14 September 1829 gave Russia most of the eastern shore of the Black Sea and the mouth of the Danube. Turkey recognized Russian sovereignty over parts of northwest present-day <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Armenia' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Armenia</a>. Serbia achieved autonomy and Russia was allowed to occupy Moldavia and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Romania' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Wallachia</a>.

Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829) 

'The Great Game' was a political and diplomatic confrontation that existed for most of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century between the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-England' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>British Empire</a> and the Russian Empire, over <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Afghanistan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Afghanistan</a>, Tibetan Kingdom, and neighbouring territories in Central and South Asia. It also had direct consequences in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Iran' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Persia</a> and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-India' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>British India</a>. Britain was fearful of Russia invading India to add to the vast empire that Russia was building. As a result, there was a deep atmosphere of distrust and the talk of war between the two major European empires. Britain made it a high priority to protect all the approaches to India, and the 'great game' is primarily how the British did this. Some historians have concluded that Russia had no plans involving India, as the Russians repeatedly stated to the British. The Great Game began on 12 January 1830 when Lord Ellenborough, the President of the Board of Control for <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-India' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>India</a>, tasked Lord William Bentinck, the Governor-General, with establishing a new trade route to the Emirate of Bukhara. Britain intended to gain control over the Emirate of Afghanistan and make it a protectorate, and to use the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Ottoman-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Ottoman Empire</a>, the Persian Empire, the Khanate of Khiva, and the Emirate of Bukhara as buffer states between both empires.

Great Game 

The <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Crimean-War' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Crimean War</a> was a military conflict fought from October 1853 to February 1856 in which Russia lost to an alliance made up of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-France' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>France</a>, the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Ottoman-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Ottoman Empire</a>, the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-England' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>United Kingdom</a> and Sardinia. The immediate cause of the war involved the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land, then a part of the Ottoman Empire. The French promoted the rights of Roman Catholics, while Russia promoted those of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Longer-term causes involved the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the unwillingness of Britain and France to allow Russia to gain territory and power at the Ottoman Empire's expense.

Crimean War 

The Emancipation Reform of 1861 in Russia was the first and most important of the liberal reforms passed during the reign (1855–1881) of Emperor Alexander II of Russia. The reform effectively abolished serfdom throughout the Russian Empire.  

Emancipation reform of 1861 

The <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russian-conquest-of-Central-Asia' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russian conquest of Central Asia</a> took place in the second half of the nineteenth century. The land that became Russian Turkestan and later Soviet Central Asia is now divided between <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Kazakhstan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Kazakhstan</a> in the north, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Uzbekistan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Uzbekistan</a> across the center, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Kyrgyzstan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Kyrgyzstan</a> in the east, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Tajikistan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Tajikistan</a> in the southeast and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Turkmenistan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Turkmenistan</a> in the southwest. The area was called Turkestan because most of its inhabitants spoke Turkic languages with the exception of Tajikistan, which speaks an <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Iran' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Iranian</a> language.

Russian conquest of Central Asia

The Alaska Purchase was the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-United-States' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>United States</a>' acquisition of Alaska from the Russian Empire. Alaska was formally transferred to the United States on October 18, 1867, through a treaty ratified by the United States Senate. Russia had established a presence in North America during the first half of the 18th century, but few Russians ever settled in Alaska. In the aftermath of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Crimean-War' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Crimean War</a>, Russian Tsar Alexander II began exploring the possibility of selling Alaska, which would be difficult to defend in any future war from being conquered by Russia's arch rival, the United Kingdom. Following the end of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/American-Civil-War' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>American Civil War</a>, U.S. Secretary of State William Seward entered into negotiations with Russian minister Eduard de Stoeckl for the purchase of Alaska. Seward and Stoeckl agreed to a treaty on March 30, 1867, and the treaty was ratified by the United States Senate by a wide margin. The purchase added 586,412 square miles (1,518,800 km2) of new territory to the United States for the cost of $7.2 million 1867 dollars. In modern terms, the cost was equivalent to $133 million in 2020 dollars or $0.37 per acre.

Alaska Purchase 

The <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russo-Turkish-War-1877-1878' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878</a> was a conflict between the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Ottoman-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Ottoman Empire</a> and the Eastern Orthodox coalition led by the Russian Empire and composed of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Bulgaria' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Bulgaria</a>, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Romania' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Romania</a>, Serbia, and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Montenegro' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Montenegro</a>. Fought in the Balkans and in the Caucasus, it originated in emerging 19th century Balkan nationalism. Additional factors included Russian goals of recovering territorial losses endured during the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Crimean-War' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Crimean War</a> , re-establishing itself in the Black Sea and supporting the political movement attempting to free Balkan nations from the Ottoman Empire.

Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) 

The assassination of Tsar Alexander II of Russia “the Liberator” took place on 13 March, 1881 in Saint Petersburg, Russia. Alexander II was killed while returning to the Winter Palace from Mikhailovsky Manège in a closed carriage. Alexander II had previously survived several attempts on his life, including the attempts by Dmitry Karakozov and Alexander Soloviev, the attempt to dynamite the imperial train in Zaporizhzhia, and the bombing of the Winter Palace in February 1880. The assassination is popularly considered to be the most successful action by the Russian nihilist movement of the 19th century.  

Assassination of Alexander II of Russia 

Industrialization in the Russian Empire saw the development of an industrial economy, whereby labor productivity increased and the demand for industrial goods was partially provided from within the empire. Industrialization in the Russian Empire was a reaction to the industrialization process in Western European countries. In the late 1880s and up to the end of the century, primarily heavy industry developed at a rapid pace, the volume of production of which increased by 4 times, and the number of workers doubled. The government made deliberate efforts that led to an unprecedented industrial boom that began in 1893. The years of this boom were a time of economic modernization of Russia under the auspices of the state. Sergius Witte, was a Russian statesman who served as the first 'Prime Minister' of the Russian Empire, replacing the Tsar as head of the government. Neither a liberal nor a conservative, he attracted foreign capital to boost Russia's industrialization. He modernized the Russian economy and encouraged foreign investment particulary from its new ally, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-France' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>France</a>.

Industrialization in the Russian Empire 

The 1st Congress of the RSDLP was held between 13 March – 15 March 1898 in Minsk, Russian Empire (now Belarus) in secrecy. The venue was a house belonging to Rumyantsev, a railway worker on the outskirts of Minsk (now in the town centre). The cover story was that they were celebrating the nameday of Rumyantsev's wife. A stove was kept burning in the next room in case secret papers had to be burnt. Lenin smuggled a draft program for the party written in milk between the lines of a book.  

First Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party 

The Socialist Revolutionary Party, or Party of Socialist-Revolutionaries was a major political party in late Imperial Russia, and both phases of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russian-Revolution' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russian Revolution</a> and early Soviet Russia. The party was established in 1902 out of the Northern Union of Socialist Revolutionaries (founded in 1896), bringing together many local socialist revolutionary groups established in the 1890s, notably the Workers' Party of Political Liberation of Russia created by Catherine Breshkovsky and Grigory Gershuni in 1899. The party's programme was democratic and socialist — it garnered much support among Russia's rural peasantry, who in particular supported their programme of land-socialization as opposed to the Bolshevik programme of land-nationalization—division of land into peasant tenants rather than collectivization into authoritarian state management.

Socialist Revolutionary Party founded 

The <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russo-Japanese-War' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russo-Japanese War</a> was fought between the Empire of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan</a> and the Russian Empire during 1904 and 1905 over rival imperial ambitions in Manchuria and Korea. The major theatres of military operations were the Liaodong Peninsula and Mukden in Southern Manchuria, and the seas around Korea, Japan, and the Yellow Sea.

Russo-Japanese War 

The Russian Revolution of 1905, also known as the First Russian Revolution, was a wave of mass political and social unrest that spread through vast areas of the Russian Empire, some of which was directed at the government. It included worker strikes, peasant unrest, and military mutinies. It led to constitutional reform (namely the 'October Manifesto'), including the establishment of the State Duma, the multi-party system, and the Russian Constitution of 1906. The 1905 revolution was spurred by the Russian defeat in the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russo-Japanese-War' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russo-Japanese War</a>. Some historians contend that the 1905 revolution set the stage for the 1917 <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russian-Revolution' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russian Revolutions</a>, and enabled Bolshevism to emerge as a distinct political movement in Russia, although it was still a minority. Lenin, as later head of the USSR, called it 'The Great Dress Rehearsal', without which the 'victory of the October Revolution in 1917 would have been impossible'.

1905 Russian Revolution 

The Battle of Tsushima was a major naval battle fought between Russia and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Japan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Japan</a> during the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russo-Japanese-War' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russo-Japanese War</a>. It was naval history's first, and last, decisive sea battle fought by modern steel battleship fleets, and the first naval battle in which wireless telegraphy (radio) played a critically important role. It has been characterized as the 'dying echo of the old era – for the last time in the history of naval warfare, ships of the line of a beaten fleet surrendered on the high seas'.

Battle of Tsushima 

<a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russian-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russia</a> entered <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/World-War-I' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>World War I</a> in August 1914 as a major power with vast resources and ambitions to reassert itself on the global stage. However, the war quickly revealed the weaknesses of its political, social, and military systems, which ultimately led to a catastrophic collapse.In the years leading up to the war, Russia had grown industrially and expanded its rail network, but it still lagged behind Western powers, particularly <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Germany' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Germany</a>, in modern infrastructure and weaponry. The <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russo-Japanese-War' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russo</a>-Japanese War and the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russian-Revolution' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>1905 Revolution</a> had already exposed Russia’s internal divisions, weak military apparatus, and the unresolved demands of its national minorities. Nonetheless, Tsar Nicholas II hoped that a victorious war might unify the Russian people and strengthen his autocratic rule.Russia’s alliance with <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-France' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>France</a> and the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-England' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>United Kingdom</a> set it against Germany and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Austria' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Austria</a>-<a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Hungary' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Hungary</a>, with whom it had longstanding tensions. But from the outset, the Russian army was poorly equipped and unprepared for the brutal realities of modern warfare. Despite initial advances, it suffered severe defeats in 1914 and 1915, including heavy losses in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Poland' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Poland</a> and Eastern Prussia. Russia’s outdated infrastructure and logistical shortcomings meant that soldiers often fought without adequate supplies, leading to low morale. By 1915, the Central Powers captured key Russian territories, cutting Russia off from important resources and disrupting its economy.The war effort intensified Russia's internal issues. Economic strain led to food shortages, inflation, and discontent among urban workers and peasants alike. The nobility, which dominated the officer corps, saw high casualties, and many new recruits came from lower-class backgrounds, who grew increasingly resentful of their superiors. Meanwhile, Nicholas II’s decision to take personal command of the army in 1915 backfired, leaving the unpopular Empress Alexandra and her advisor, the mystic Rasputin, to manage the government. Political instability grew, and the Duma, initially supportive, turned against the Tsar's administration.Despite some military successes, such as General Brusilov's offensive in 1916, Russian morale remained low. The population was exhausted, and the majority of soldiers became pessimistic about the war’s outcome. By early 1917, frustrations boiled over into the February Revolution, which led to Nicholas II’s abdication and the establishment of a provisional government.The new government attempted to keep Russia in the war but faced severe resistance from a disintegrating army and a war-weary population. In October 1917, the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized power, promising peace and reform. In March 1918, they signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, ceding large territories, including Ukraine and the Baltics, and ending Russia’s participation in the war.Russia's World War I experience left it economically devastated, politically fractured, and socially divided. The revolution that followed plunged the country into civil war, marking the end of the Romanov dynasty and paving the way for the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Soviet-Union' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Soviet Union</a>.

Russia during World War I

The <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russian-Revolution' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russian Revolution</a> of 1917 was a pivotal event that dismantled the centuries-old Russian Empire, transforming it from a traditional autocratic monarchy into a nascent socialist state. Deep-rooted political, economic, and social crises within the empire had been simmering for decades, setting the stage for revolution.The Russian Empire, under the rule of Tsar Nicholas II, was a vast but largely agrarian state marked by extreme class divisions. The majority of its people were impoverished peasants who bore heavy taxation, while the nobility held much of the land and wealth. Industrialization, though rapid in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, had not caught up with Western Europe. Workers in Russian cities were often poorly paid and worked under harsh conditions, leading them to become susceptible to revolutionary ideas.Political unrest grew as a result of two earlier events: the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russo-Japanese-War' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russo-Japanese War</a> (1904–1905) and the Revolution of 1905. The war exposed Russia’s military and industrial weaknesses, while the revolution led to calls for reform, including demands for a parliament, the State Duma. Tsar Nicholas II reluctantly conceded some reforms, but he later reversed or restricted many of them, maintaining his autocratic control.<a href='https://history-maps.com/story/World-War-I' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>World War I</a> became a tipping point. Ill-prepared and poorly led, Russia’s army suffered catastrophic losses, and the war caused severe food and fuel shortages, spiking inflation, and economic collapse. Nicholas II’s decision to take personal command of the army further destabilized the empire, as it left the government in the hands of Empress Alexandra, who was unpopular due to her <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Germany' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>German</a> origins and reliance on the mystic Rasputin.By February 1917, widespread strikes, food shortages, and disillusionment with the monarchy triggered mass protests in Petrograd (St. Petersburg). Soldiers began mutinying and joining the protests, leading Nicholas II to abdicate. The Duma established a provisional government that aimed to establish democratic reforms but decided to keep Russia in the war, a decision that proved disastrous as public discontent continued to grow.In October 1917, the Bolshevik Party, led by Vladimir Lenin, capitalized on the instability. They launched a coup against the provisional government, promising 'peace, land, and bread' to a population weary of war and economic hardship. After seizing power, the Bolsheviks immediately began negotiating Russia's exit from World War I, signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918, which ceded large territories but brought peace.The revolution dismantled the Russian Empire and plunged the country into civil war, pitting the Bolshevik Red Army against various anti-Bolshevik forces, known as the White Army. This war lasted until 1922, resulting in a Bolshevik victory and the establishment of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Soviet-Union' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Soviet Union</a>, which replaced the Russian Empire with a radically different socialist state. The Russian Revolution marked the end of imperial rule and set the course for Russia's transformation into a centralized, Marxist-inspired state.

Russian Revolution

The execution of the Romanov family took place on the night of July 16–17, 1918, marking the violent end of Russia's imperial dynasty. Tsar Nicholas II, his wife Empress Alexandra, their five children (Olga, Tatiana, Maria, Anastasia, and Alexei), and a few loyal attendants were held by Bolshevik forces at the Ipatiev House in Yekaterinburg after Nicholas’s abdication during the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russian-Revolution' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russian Revolution</a>.Following the October Revolution of 1917, the Bolsheviks saw the Romanovs as a potential rallying symbol for counter-revolutionary forces. With the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Russian-Civil-War' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Russian Civil War</a> raging, anti-Bolshevik White Army forces were approaching Yekaterinburg, raising fears that they might rescue the Romanovs. The local Bolshevik leaders decided to prevent this by executing the family, a decision likely approved by higher Soviet officials.In the early hours of July 17, the family was awakened and told they were being moved for their safety. Led to a basement room, they were abruptly informed of their execution. Nicholas and his family were then killed by a firing squad, with the soldiers later using bayonets to finish off any survivors. The Bolsheviks initially kept the execution secret but later released an official statement confirming Nicholas’s death, while concealing the full extent of the massacre. The remains of the Romanovs were hidden and not discovered until the 1970s, with final identifications confirmed in the 1990s. The execution ended the three-century rule of the Romanov dynasty and underscored the ruthless tactics of the Bolshevik regime during the revolutionary period.

Execution of the Romanov family

Peter implementoval rozsáhlé reformy zaměřené na modernizaci Ruska. Peter, který byl silně ovlivněn jeho poradci ze západní Evropy, reorganizoval Ruskou armádu podél moderních linií a snil o tom, že se Rusko stane námořní mocí. Peter absolutně realizoval sociální modernizaci zavedením francouzských a západních šatů a vyžadoval dvojice, státní úředníky a armádu, aby oholili své vousy a přijali moderní styly oblečení. Ve svém procesu k západnímu Rusku chtěl, aby se členové své rodiny oženili s jinými evropskými královskými odměny. V rámci svých reforem zahájil Peter industrializační úsilí, které bylo pomalé, ale nakonec úspěšné. Ruská výroba a hlavní vývoz byly založeny na těžebním a řezivovém průmyslu. Aby se zlepšil postavení svého národa na moři, se Peter snažil získat více námořních prodejen. Jeho jediným odtokem v té době bylo Bílé moře v Arkhangelsku. Baltské moře bylo v té době ovládáno <a href="https://history-maps.com/cs/story/History-of-Sweden" target="_blank">Švédskem</a> na severu, zatímco Černé moře a Kaspické moře byly ovládány <a href="https://history-maps.com/cs/story/History-of-the-Ottoman-Empire" target="_blank">Osmanskou říší</a> a <a href="https://history-maps.com/cs/story/Safavid-Persia" target="_blank">Safavidskou říší</a> na jihu.

Peter modernizuje Rusko