Wars of Scottish Independence

The death of King Alexander III in 1286 and the subsequent death of his granddaughter and heir, Margaret, Maid of Norway, in 1290, left Scotland without a clear successor, resulting in 14 rivals vying for the throne. To prevent civil war, the Scottish magnates requested Edward I of England to arbitrate. In return for his arbitration, Edward extracted legal recognition that Scotland was held as a feudal dependency of England. He selected John Balliol, who had the strongest claim, as king in 1292. Robert Bruce, the 5th Lord of Annandale and the next strongest claimant, reluctantly accepted this outcome.

Edward I systematically undermined King John's authority and Scotland's independence. In 1295, King John entered into the Auld Alliance with France, provoking Edward to invade Scotland in 1296 and depose him. Resistance emerged in 1297 when William Wallace and Andrew de Moray defeated an English army at the Battle of Stirling Bridge. Wallace ruled Scotland briefly as Guardian in John Balliol's name until Edward defeated him at the Battle of Falkirk in 1298. Wallace was eventually captured and executed in 1305.

Rivals John Comyn and Robert the Bruce were appointed joint guardians. On February 10, 1306, Bruce murdered Comyn at Greyfriars Kirk in Dumfries and was crowned king seven weeks later. However, Edward's forces defeated Bruce at the Battle of Methven, leading to Bruce's excommunication by Pope Clement V. Gradually, Bruce's support grew, and by 1314, only the castles of Bothwell and Stirling remained under English control. Bruce's forces defeated Edward II at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, securing de facto independence for Scotland.

In 1320, the Declaration of Arbroath helped convince Pope John XXII to recognize Scotland's sovereignty. The first full Parliament of Scotland, comprising the Three Estates (nobility, clergy, and burgh commissioners), met in 1326. In 1328, the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton was signed by Edward III, acknowledging Scottish independence under Robert the Bruce.

However, after Robert's death in 1329, England invaded again, attempting to place Edward Balliol, son of John Balliol, on the Scottish throne. Despite initial victories, English efforts failed due to strong Scottish resistance led by Sir Andrew Murray. Edward III lost interest in Balliol's cause due to the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War. David II, Robert's son, returned from exile in 1341, and Balliol ultimately resigned his claim in 1356, dying in 1364. At the conclusion of both wars, Scotland maintained its status as an independent state.