The Sultanate of Brunei, located on the northern coast of Borneo, emerged as a significant Malay sultanate in the 15th century. It expanded its territories following the fall of Malacca^[58] to the Portuguese, at one point stretching its influence to parts of the Philippines and coastal Borneo. Brunei's initial ruler was a Muslim, and the sultanate's growth was attributed to its strategic trading location and maritime prowess. However, Brunei faced challenges from regional powers and suffered internal succession disputes.

Historical records of early Brunei are sparse, and much of its early history is derived from Chinese sources. The Chinese annals referenced Brunei's trade and territorial influence, noting its ties with the Javanese Majapahit Empire. In the 14th century, Brunei experienced Javanese dominion, but after Majapahit's decline, Brunei expanded its territories. It controlled regions in northwest Borneo, parts of Mindanao, and the Sulu Archipelago. By the 16th century, Brunei's empire was a powerful entity, with the capital city fortified and its influence felt in nearby Malay sultanates.

Despite its early prominence, Brunei began declining in the 17th century^[59] due to internal royal conflicts, European colonial expansion, and challenges from neighboring Sultanate of Sulu. By the 19th century, Brunei had lost significant territories to Western powers and faced internal threats. To safeguard its sovereignty, Sultan Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin sought British protection, resulting in Brunei becoming a British protectorate in 1888. This protectorate status continued until 1984 when Brunei attained its independence.