The history of ancient Israel and Judah in the Southern Levant region starts during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. The oldest known reference to Israel as a people is in the Merneptah Stele from Egypt, dating to around 1208 BCE. Modern archaeology suggests that ancient Israelite culture evolved from Canaanite civilization. By the Iron Age II, two Israelite polities, the Kingdom of Israel (Samaria) and the Kingdom of Judah, were established in the region.

According to the Hebrew Bible, a "United Monarchy" under Saul, David, and Solomon existed in the 11th century BCE, which later divided into the northern Kingdom of Israel and the southern Kingdom of Judah, the latter containing Jerusalem and the Jewish Temple. While the historicity of this United Monarchy is debated, it is generally agreed that Israel and Judah were distinct entities by around 900 BCE^[19] and 850 BCE^[20], respectively.

The Kingdom of Israel fell to the Neo-Assyrian Empire around 720 BCE^[21], while Judah became a client state of the Assyrians and later the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Revolts against Babylon led to Judah's destruction in 586 BCE by Nebuchadnezzar II, culminating in the destruction of Solomon's Temple and the Jewish exile to Babylon.^[22] This exile period marked a significant development in Israelite religion, transitioning towards monotheistic Judaism.

The Jewish exile ended with the fall of Babylon to the Persian Empire around 538 BCE. Cyrus the Great's Edict allowed Jews to return to Judah, beginning the return to Zion and the construction of the Second Temple, initiating the Second Temple period.^[23]