Scotland during the Roman Empire

During the Roman Empire, the area now known as Scotland, inhabited by the Caledonians and the Maeatae, was not fully incorporated into the Empire despite various attempts between the first and fourth centuries CE. Roman legions arrived around 71 CE, aiming to conquer the territory north of the River Forth, known as Caledonia, while the rest of modern Britain, called Britannia, was already under Roman control.

Roman campaigns in Scotland were initiated by governors such as Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Gnaeus Julius Agricola. Agricola's campaigns in the 70s and 80s CE culminated in a purported victory at the Battle of Mons Graupius, though the exact location remains uncertain. A Roman road built by Agricola was rediscovered in 2023 near Stirling, highlighting Roman efforts to consolidate control.

The Romans established temporary borders first along the Gask Ridge and later along the Stanegate, which was fortified as Hadrian's Wall. Another attempt to control the region north of Hadrian's Wall led to the construction of the Antonine Wall. The Romans managed to hold most of their Caledonian territory for about 40 years, but their influence waned after the early 2nd century CE.

Iron Age tribes in Scotland during this period included the Cornovii, Caereni, Smertae, and others. These tribes likely spoke a form of Celtic known as Common Brittonic. The construction of brochs, hill forts, and souterrains characterized the period, with brochs like Mousa Broch being particularly notable. Despite the Roman presence, there was little evidence of a hierarchical elite or centralized political control among these tribes.

Roman interactions with Scotland diminished after the early 3rd century CE. Emperor Septimius Severus campaigned in Scotland around 209 CE but faced significant resistance and logistical challenges. After Severus' death in 211 CE, the Romans withdrew permanently to Hadrian's Wall. The intermittent Roman presence coincided with the emergence of the Picts, who lived north of the Forth and Clyde and may have been descendants of the Caledonians. Pictish society, like that of the earlier Iron Age, lacked centralized control and was characterized by fortified settlements and brochs.

As Roman power waned, Pictish raids on Roman territories increased, particularly in 342, 360, and 365 CE. They participated in the Great Conspiracy of 367, which overran Roman Britannia. Rome retaliated with a campaign under Count Theodosius in 369, re-establishing a province named Valentia, though its precise location remains unclear. A subsequent campaign in 384 was also short-lived. Stilicho, a Roman general, may have fought the Picts around 398, but by 410, Rome had fully withdrawn from Britain, never to return.

Roman influence on Scotland included the spread of Christianity and literacy, mainly via Irish missionaries. Although the Roman military presence was brief, their legacy included the use of Latin script and the establishment of Christianity, which persisted long after their departure. The archaeological record of Roman Scotland includes military forts, roads, and temporary camps, but the impact on local culture and settlement patterns appears limited. The most enduring Roman legacy may be the establishment of Hadrian's Wall, which approximates the modern border between Scotland and England.