In the 10th century BCE, a significant polity emerged on the Gibeon-Gibeah plateau in the Southern Levant, which was later destroyed by Shoshenq I, also known as the biblical Shishak.^[31] This led to a return to small city-states in the region. However, between 950 and 900 BCE, another large polity formed in the northern highlands, with Tirzah as its capital, eventually becoming the precursor of the Kingdom of Israel.^[32] The Kingdom of Israel consolidated as a regional power by the first half of the 9th century BCE^[31], but fell to the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 722 BCE. Meanwhile, the Kingdom of Judah began to flourish in the second half of the 9th century BCE.^[31]

Favorable climatic conditions in the first two centuries of Iron Age II spurred population growth, settlement expansion, and increased trade throughout the region.^[33] This led to the unification of the central highlands under a kingdom with Samaria as its capital^[33], possibly by the second half of the 10th century BCE, as indicated by an Egyptian pharaoh Shoshenq I's campaigns.^[34] The Kingdom of Israel was clearly established by the first half of the 9th century BCE, as evidenced by the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III's mention of "Ahab the Israelite" at the Battle of Qarqar in 853 BCE.^[31] The Mesha Stele, dating to around 830 BCE, references the name Yahweh, which is considered the earliest extra-biblical reference to the Israelite deity.^[35] The biblical and Assyrian sources describe massive deportations from Israel and their replacement with settlers from other parts of the empire as part of Assyrian imperial policy.^[36]

Judah's emergence as an operational kingdom occurred somewhat later than Israel, during the second half of the 9th century BCE^[31], but this is a subject of considerable controversy.^[37] The southern highlands were divided between several centers during the 10th and 9th centuries BCE, with none having clear primacy.^[38] A significant increase in the power of the Judean state is observed during the reign of Hezekiah, between approximately 715 and 686 BCE.^[39] This period saw the construction of notable structures such as the Broad Wall and the Siloam Tunnel in Jerusalem.^[39]

The Kingdom of Israel experienced substantial prosperity in the late Iron Age, marked by urban development and the construction of palaces, large royal enclosures, and fortifications.^[40] Israel's economy was diverse, with major olive oil and wine industries.^[41] In contrast, the Kingdom of Judah was less advanced, initially limited to small settlements around Jerusalem.^[42] Jerusalem's significant residential activity is not evident until the 9th century BCE, despite the existence of earlier administrative structures.^[43]

By the 7th century BCE, Jerusalem had grown significantly, achieving dominance over its neighbors.^[44] This growth likely resulted from an arrangement with the Assyrians to establish Judah as a vassal state controlling the olive industry.^[44] Despite prospering under Assyrian rule, Judah faced destruction in a series of campaigns between 597 and 582 BCE due to conflicts between Egypt and the Neo-Babylonian Empire following the collapse of the Assyrian Empire.^[44]