Iran experienced a period of division until Timur, a Turco-Mongol leader of the Timurid dynasty, emerged. The Timurid Empire, part of the Persianate world, was established after Timur conquered most of Iran following his invasion that began in 1381. Timur's military campaigns were marked by exceptional brutality, including widespread slaughter and the destruction of cities.^[41]

Despite his regime's tyrannical and violent nature, Timur included Iranians in administrative roles and promoted architecture and poetry. The Timurid dynasty maintained control over most of Iran until 1452, when they lost the majority of their territory to the Black Sheep Turkmen. The Black Sheep Turkmen were later defeated by the White Sheep Turkmen led by Uzun Hasan in 1468, who then ruled Iran until the rise of the Safavids.^[41]

The era of the Timurids was significant for Persian literature, particularly for the Sufi poet Hafez. His popularity and the widespread copying of his divan were firmly established during this period. Despite the persecution Sufis faced from orthodox Muslims, who often deemed their teachings blasphemous, Sufism thrived, developing a rich symbolic language filled with metaphors to disguise potentially controversial philosophical ideas. Hafez, while concealing his Sufi beliefs, adeptly utilized this symbolic language in his poetry, earning recognition for perfecting this form.^[42] His work influenced other poets, including Jami, whose popularity extended throughout the Persianate world.^[43]