Roman Egypt, as a province of the Roman Empire from 30 BCE to 641 CE, was a vital region encompassing most of modern-day Egypt, excluding Sinai. It was a highly prosperous province, known for its grain production and advanced urban economy, making it the wealthiest Roman province outside Italy.^[77] The population, estimated between 4 to 8 million,^[78] was centered around Alexandria, the Roman Empire's largest port and second-largest city.^[79]

The Roman military presence in Egypt initially included three legions, later reduced to two, supplemented by auxiliary forces.^{[80 ]}Administratively, Egypt was divided into nomes, with each major town known as a metropolis, enjoying certain privileges.^[80] The population was ethnically and culturally diverse, predominantly comprising peasant farmers speaking Egyptian. In contrast, the urban populations in metropolises were Greek-speaking and followed Hellenistic culture. Despite these divisions, there was significant social mobility, urbanization, and high literacy rates.^[80] The Constitutio Antoniniana of 212 CE extended Roman citizenship to all free Egyptians.^[80]

Roman Egypt was initially resilient, recovering from the Antonine Plague in the late 2nd century.^[80] However, during the Crisis of the Third Century, it fell under the control of the Palmyrene Empire after Zenobia's invasion in 269 CE, only to be reclaimed by Emperor Aurelian and later contested by usurpers against Emperor Diocletian.^[81] Diocletian's reign brought administrative and economic reforms, coinciding with the rise of Christianity, leading to the emergence of the Coptic language among Egyptian Christians.^[80]

Under Diocletian, the southern frontier was moved to the First Cataract of the Nile at Syene (Aswan), marking a long-standing peaceful boundary.^[81] The late Roman army, including limitanei and regular units like Scythians, maintained this frontier. Economic stability was bolstered by the introduction of the gold solidus coin by Constantine the Great.^[81] The period also saw a shift towards private land ownership, with significant estates owned by Christian churches and small landholders.^[81]

The First Plague Pandemic reached the Mediterranean through Roman Egypt with the Justinianic Plague in 541. Egypt's fate changed dramatically in the 7th century: conquered by the Sasanian Empire in 618, it briefly returned to Eastern Roman control in 628 before permanently becoming part of the Rashidun Caliphate following the Muslim conquest in 641. This transition marked the end of Roman rule in Egypt, ushering in a new era in the region's history.