The Indo-<a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Republic-of-Pakistan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Pakistani</a> War of 1947-1948, also known as the First Kashmir War,[5] was the first major conflict between India and Pakistan after they became independent nations. It was centered around the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir.Jammu and Kashmir, before 1815, comprised small states under Afghan rule and later under Sikh dominance after the decline of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Mughal-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Mughals</a>. The <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-India' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>First Anglo-Sikh War</a> (1845-46) led to the region being sold to Gulab Singh, forming the princely state under the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-England' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>British Raj</a>. The partition of India in 1947, which created India and Pakistan, led to violence and a mass movement of populations based on religious lines.The war began with Jammu and Kashmir State Forces and tribal militias in action. The Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, Hari Singh, faced an uprising and lost control of parts of his kingdom. Pakistani tribal militias entered the state on October 22, 1947, attempting to capture Srinagar.[6] Hari Singh requested help from India, which was offered on the condition of the state's accession to India. Maharaja Hari Singh initially chose not to join either India or Pakistan. The National Conference, a major political force in Kashmir, favored joining India, while the Muslim Conference in Jammu favored Pakistan. The Maharaja eventually acceded to India, a decision influenced by the tribal invasion and internal rebellions. Indian troops were then airlifted to Srinagar. After the state's accession to India, the conflict saw the direct involvement of Indian and Pakistani forces. The conflict zones solidified around what later became the Line of Control, with a ceasefire declared on January 1, 1949.[7]Various military operations like Operation Gulmarg by Pakistan and airlifting of Indian troops to Srinagar marked the war. British officers in command on both sides maintained a restrained approach. The UN's involvement led to a ceasefire and subsequent resolutions that aimed at a plebiscite, which never materialized.The war ended in a stalemate with neither side achieving a decisive victory, although India maintained control over the majority of the contested region. The conflict led to a permanent division of Jammu and Kashmir, laying the foundation for future Indo-Pakistani conflicts. The UN established a group to monitor the ceasefire, and the area remained a point of contention in subsequent Indo-Pakistani relations. The war had significant political repercussions in Pakistan and set the stage for future military coups and conflicts. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947-1948 set a precedent for the complex and often contentious relationship between India and Pakistan, particularly regarding the region of Kashmir.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1947-1948

The history of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-India' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>India</a> is characterized by its rich cultural diversity and complex history, stretching back over 5,000 years. Early civilizations like the Indus Valley Civilization were among the world's first and most advanced. India's history saw various dynasties and empires, such as the Maurya, Gupta, and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/Mughal-Empire' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Mughal Empires</a>, each contributing to its rich tapestry of culture, religion, and philosophy.The <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-England' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>British East India Company</a> began its trade in India during the 17th century, slowly expanding its influence. By the mid-19th century, India was effectively under British control. This period saw the implementation of policies that benefitted Britain at India's expense, leading to widespread discontent.In response, a wave of nationalism swept across India in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru emerged, advocating for independence. Gandhi's approach of non-violent civil disobedience gained widespread support, while others like Subhas Chandra Bose believed in more assertive resistance. Key events like the Salt March and Quit India Movement galvanized public opinion against British rule.The independence struggle culminated in 1947, but it was marred by the partition of India into two nations: India and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Republic-of-Pakistan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Pakistan</a>. This division was primarily due to religious differences, with Pakistan becoming a Muslim-majority nation and India having a Hindu-majority. The partition led to one of the largest human migrations in history and resulted in significant communal violence, deeply impacting the socio-political landscape of both nations.

Prologue

The Partition of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-India' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>India</a>, as outlined in the Indian Independence Act of 1947, marked the end of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-England' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>British rule</a> in South Asia and resulted in the creation of two independent dominions, India and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Republic-of-Pakistan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Pakistan</a>, on August 14 and 15, 1947, respectively.[1] This partition involved the division of the British Indian provinces of Bengal and Punjab based on religious majorities, with Muslim-majority areas becoming part of Pakistan and non-Muslim areas joining India.[2] Along with territorial division, assets like the British Indian Army, Navy, Air Force, civil service, railways, and treasury were also divided.This event led to massive and hasty migrations,[3] with estimates suggesting 14 to 18 million people moved, and around one million dying due to the violence and upheaval. Refugees, primarily <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Hinduism' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Hindus</a> and Sikhs from regions like West Punjab and East Bengal, migrated to India, while Muslims moved to Pakistan, seeking safety among co-religionists.[4] The partition sparked extensive communal violence, particularly in Punjab and Bengal, as well as in cities like Calcutta, Delhi, and Lahore. Approximately one million Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs lost their lives in these conflicts.Efforts to mitigate the violence and support refugees were undertaken by both Indian and Pakistani leaders. Notably, Mahatma Gandhi played a significant role in promoting peace through fasts in Calcutta and Delhi.[4] The governments of India and Pakistan set up relief camps and mobilized armies for humanitarian aid. Despite these efforts, the partition left a legacy of hostility and mistrust between India and Pakistan, impacting their relationship to this day.

Partition of India

Mahatma Gandhi, a prominent leader in India's struggle for independence, was assassinated on January 30, 1948, at the age of 78. The assassination took place in New Delhi at the Birla House, now known as Gandhi Smriti. Nathuram Godse, a Chitpavan Brahmin from Pune, Maharashtra, was identified as the assassin. He was a Hindu nationalist[8] and a member of both the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, a right-wing Hindu organization,[9] and the Hindu Mahasabha. Godse's motive was believed to be rooted in his perception that Gandhi was overly conciliatory towards <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Republic-of-Pakistan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Pakistan</a> during the 1947 <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-India' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Partition of India</a>.[10]The assassination occurred in the evening, around 5 p.m., as Gandhi was heading to a prayer meeting. Godse, emerging from the crowd, fired three bullets at point-blank range[11] into Gandhi, striking his chest and stomach. Gandhi collapsed and was taken back to his room in Birla House, where he later died.[12]Godse was immediately apprehended by the crowd, which included Herbert Reiner Jr, a vice-consul at the American embassy. The trial for Gandhi's assassination began in May 1948 at the Red Fort in Delhi. Godse, along with his collaborator Narayan Apte and six others, were the main defendants. The trial was expedited, a decision possibly influenced by the then Home Minister Vallabhbhai Patel, who may have wanted to avoid criticism over the failure to prevent the assassination.[13] Despite appeals for clemency from Gandhi's sons, Manilal and Ramdas, the death sentences for Godse and Apte were upheld by prominent leaders like Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Deputy Prime Minister Vallabhbhai Patel. Both were executed on November 15, 1949.[14]

Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi

Before India's independence in 1947, it was divided into two main territories: <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-India' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>British India</a>, under direct British rule, and princely states under British suzerainty but with internal autonomy. There were 562 princely states with varied revenue-sharing arrangements with the British. Also, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-France' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>French</a> and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Portugal' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Portuguese</a> controlled some colonial enclaves. The Indian National Congress aimed to integrate these territories into a unified Indian Union.Initially, the British alternated between annexation and indirect rule. The 1857 Indian Rebellion prompted the British to respect princely states' sovereignty to some extent, while maintaining paramountcy. Efforts to integrate princely states with British India intensified in the 20th century, but <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/World-War-II' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>World War II</a> halted these efforts. With Indian independence, the British declared that paramountcy and treaties with princely states would end, leaving them to negotiate with India or <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Republic-of-Pakistan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Pakistan</a>.In the period leading up to Indian independence in 1947, key Indian leaders adopted different strategies for integrating the princely states into the Indian Union. Jawaharlal Nehru, a prominent leader, adopted a firm stance. In July 1946, he warned that no princely state could militarily withstand the army of an independent India.[15] By January 1947, Nehru clearly stated that the concept of the divine right of kings would not be accepted in independent India.[16] Further escalating his firm approach, in May 1947, Nehru declared that any princely state refusing to join the Constituent Assembly of India would be treated as an enemy state.[17]In contrast, Vallabhbhai Patel and V. P. Menon, who were directly responsible for the task of integrating the princely states, adopted a more conciliatory approach towards the rulers of these states. Their strategy was to negotiate and work with the princes rather than confront them directly. This approach proved to be successful, as they were instrumental in persuading most princely states to accede to the Indian Union.[18]Princely states' rulers had mixed reactions. Some, driven by patriotism, willingly joined India, while others contemplated independence or joining Pakistan. Not all princely states readily joined India.<ul><li>Junagadh Initially acceded to Pakistan but faced internal resistance and eventually joined India after a plebiscite.</li><li>Jammu and Kashmir Faced invasion from Pakistan; acceded to India for military aid, leading to ongoing conflict.</li><li>Hyderabad Resisted accession but was integrated following military intervention (Operation Polo) and subsequent political settlement.</li></ul>Post-accession, the Indian government worked to harmonize the administrative and governance structures of the princely states with those of the former British territories, leading to the formation of India's current federal structure. The process involved diplomatic negotiations, legal frameworks (like Instruments of Accession), and sometimes military action, culminating in a unified Republic of India. By 1956, the distinction between princely states and British Indian territories had largely diminished.

Integration of Princely States of India

The Constitution of India, a pivotal document in the nation's history, was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on November 26, 1949, and became effective on January 26, 1950.[19] This constitution marked a significant transition from the Government of India Act 1935 to a new governing framework, transforming the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-India' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Dominion of India</a> into the Republic of India. One of the key steps in this transition was the repeal of previous acts of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-England' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>British Parliament</a>, ensuring India's constitutional independence, known as constitutional autochthony.[20]The Constitution of India established the country as a sovereign, socialist, secular,[21] and democratic republic. It promised its citizens justice, equality, and liberty, and aimed to foster a sense of fraternity among them.[22] Notable features of the Constitution included the introduction of universal suffrage, allowing all adults to vote. It also established a Westminster-style parliamentary system at both federal and state levels and set up an independent judiciary.[23] It mandated reserved quotas or seats for 'socially and educationally backward citizens' in education, employment, political bodies, and promotions.[24] Since its enactment, the Constitution of India has undergone over 100 amendments, reflecting the evolving needs and challenges of the nation.[25]

Constitution of India

Jawaharlal Nehru, often seen as the founder of the modern Indian state, crafted a national philosophy with seven key objectives: national unity, parliamentary democracy, industrialization, socialism, development of scientific temper, and non-alignment. This philosophy underpinned many of his policies, benefiting sectors like public sector workers, industrial houses, and middle and upper peasantry. However, these policies did not significantly aid the urban and rural poor, the unemployed, and Hindu fundamentalists.[26]After the death of Vallabhbhai Patel in 1950, Nehru became the preeminent national leader, allowing him to implement his vision for India more freely. His economic policies focused on import substitution industrialization and a mixed economy. This approach combined government-controlled public sectors with private sectors.[27] Nehru prioritized developing basic and heavy industries like steel, iron, coal, and power, supporting these sectors with subsidies and protective policies.[28]Under Nehru's leadership, the Congress party won further elections in 1957 and 1962. During his tenure, significant legal reforms were enacted to improve the rights of women in Hindu society[29] and to address caste discrimination and untouchability. Nehru also championed education, leading to the establishment of numerous schools, colleges, and institutions like the Indian Institutes of Technology.[30]Nehru's socialist vision for India's economy was formalized with the creation of the Planning Commission in 1950, which he chaired. This commission developed Five-Year Plans based on the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Soviet-Union' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Soviet model</a>, focusing on centralized and integrated national economic programs.[31] These plans included no taxation for farmers, minimum wages and benefits for blue-collar workers, and the nationalization of key industries. Additionally, there was a drive to seize village common lands for public works and industrialization, leading to the construction of major dams, irrigation canals, roads, and power stations.

Nehru Administration

The death of Potti Sreeramulu in 1952, following his fast-unto-death for the creation of an Andhra State, significantly influenced the territorial organization of India. In response to this event and the rising demand for states based on linguistic and ethnic identities, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru established the States Re-organisation Commission. The commission's recommendations led to the States Reorganisation Act of 1956, a landmark in Indian administrative history.This Act redefined the boundaries of India's states, dissolving old states and creating new ones along linguistic and ethnic lines. This reorganization led to the formation of Kerala as a separate state and the Telugu-speaking regions of Madras State becoming part of the newly formed Andhra State. It also resulted in the creation of Tamil Nadu as an exclusively Tamil-speaking state.<img src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/India_administrative_map_1956_PL.png'>India administrative map 1956. © AotearoaFurther changes occurred in the 1960s. On May 1, 1960, the bilingual Bombay State was divided into two states: Maharashtra for Marathi speakers and Gujarat for Gujarati speakers. Similarly, on November 1, 1966, the larger Punjab state was split into a smaller Punjabi-speaking Punjab and a Haryanvi-speaking Haryana. These reorganizations reflected the central government's efforts to accommodate the diverse linguistic and cultural identities within the Indian Union.

States Reorganisation Act

The Annexation of Goa in 1961 was a significant event in Indian history, where the Republic of India annexed the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Portugal' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Portuguese</a> Indian territories of Goa, Daman, and Diu. This action, known in India as the 'Liberation of Goa' and in Portugal as the 'Invasion of Goa,' was the culmination of efforts by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru to end Portuguese rule in these areas. Nehru initially hoped that a popular movement in Goa and international public opinion would lead to independence from Portuguese authority. However, when these efforts were ineffective, he decided to resort to military force.[36]The military operation, named Operation Vijay (meaning 'Victory' in Sanskrit), was conducted by the Indian Armed Forces. It involved coordinated air, sea, and land strikes over a period of more than 36 hours. The operation was a decisive victory for India, ending 451 years of Portuguese rule over its exclaves in India. The conflict lasted two days, resulting in the deaths of twenty-two Indians and thirty Portuguese.[37] The annexation received mixed reactions globally: it was seen as a liberation of historically Indian territory in India, while Portugal viewed it as an unwarranted aggression against its national soil and citizens.Following the end of Portuguese rule, Goa was initially placed under military administration led by Kunhiraman Palat Candeth as lieutenant governor. On June 8, 1962, the military rule was replaced by a civilian government. The Lieutenant Governor established an informal Consultative Council comprising 29 nominated members to assist in the administration of the territory.

Annexation of Goa

India's engagement with the concept of non-alignment was rooted in its desire to avoid participation in the military aspects of a bipolar world, especially in the context of colonialism. This policy aimed at maintaining a degree of international autonomy and freedom of action. However, there was no universally accepted definition of non-alignment, leading to varied interpretations and applications by different politicians and governments. While the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) shared common aims and principles, member countries often struggled to achieve the desired level of independent judgment, particularly in areas such as social justice and human rights.India's commitment to non-alignment faced challenges during various conflicts, including the wars of 1962, 1965, and 1971. The responses of non-aligned nations during these conflicts highlighted their positions on issues like secession and territorial integrity. Notably, the NAM's effectiveness as peacekeepers was limited during the Indo-<a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-China' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>China</a> war in 1962 and the Indo-<a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Republic-of-Pakistan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Pakistan</a> war in 1965, despite meaningful attempts.The 1971 Indo-Pakistan War and the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Bangladesh' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Bangladesh</a> Liberation War further tested the Non-Aligned Movement, with many member states prioritizing territorial integrity over human rights. This stance was influenced by the recent independence of many of these nations. During this period, India's non-aligned position was subject to criticism and scrutiny.[32] Jawaharlal Nehru, who played a significant role in the movement, had resisted its formalization, and member nations did not have mutual assistance commitments.[33] Additionally, the rise of countries like China reduced the incentive for non-aligned nations to support India.[34]Despite these challenges, India emerged as a key player in the Non-Aligned Movement. Its significant size, economic growth, and position in international diplomacy established it as one of the movement's leaders, especially among colonies and newly independent countries.[35]

India and the Non-Aligned Movement

The Sino-Indian War was an armed conflict between <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-China' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>China</a> and India that occurred from October to November 1962. This war was essentially an escalation of the ongoing border dispute between the two nations. The primary areas of conflict were along the border regions: in India's North-East Frontier Agency to the east of Bhutan and in Aksai Chin to the west of Nepal.Tensions between China and India had been escalating following the 1959 Tibetan uprising, after which India granted asylum to the Dalai Lama. The situation worsened as India refused China's diplomatic settlement proposals between 1960 and 1962. China responded by resuming 'forward patrols' in the Ladakh region, which it had previously ceased.[38] The conflict intensified amidst the global tension of the Cuban Missile Crisis, with China abandoning all efforts for a peaceful resolution on October 20, 1962. This led to Chinese forces invading disputed territories along the 3,225-kilometer (2,004 miles) border in Ladakh and across the McMahon Line in the northeastern frontier.The Chinese military pushed Indian forces back, capturing all the territory they claimed in the western theater and the Tawang Tract in the eastern theater. The conflict ended when China declared a ceasefire on November 20, 1962, and announced its withdrawal to its pre-war positions, essentially the Line of Actual Control, which served as the effective China–India border. The war was characterized by mountain warfare, conducted at altitudes over 4,000 meters (13,000 feet), and was limited to land engagements, with neither side using naval or air assets.During this period, the Sino-Soviet split influenced international relations significantly. The <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Soviet-Union' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Soviet Union</a> supported India, notably through the sale of advanced MiG fighter aircraft. Conversely, the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-United-States' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>United States</a> and the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-England' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>United Kingdom</a> declined to sell advanced weaponry to India, leading India to rely more on the Soviet Union for military support.[39]

Sino-Indian War

The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, also known as the Second India–<a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Republic-of-Pakistan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Pakistan</a> War, unfolded over several stages, marked by key events and strategic shifts. The conflict originated from the longstanding dispute over Jammu and Kashmir. It escalated following Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar in August 1965,[40] designed to infiltrate forces into Jammu and Kashmir to precipitate an insurgency against Indian rule.[41] The operation's discovery led to increased military tensions between the two countries.The war saw significant military engagements, including the largest tank battle since World War II. Both India and Pakistan utilized their land, air, and naval forces. Notable operations during the war included Pakistan's Operation Desert Hawk and India's counter-offensive on the Lahore front. The Battle of Asal Uttar was a critical point where Indian forces inflicted heavy losses on Pakistan's armored division. Pakistan's air force performed effectively despite being outnumbered, particularly in defending Lahore and other strategic locations.The war culminated in September 1965 with a ceasefire, following diplomatic intervention by the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Soviet-Union' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Soviet Union</a> and the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-United-States' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>United States</a> and the adoption of United Nations Security Council Resolution 211. The Tashkent Declaration subsequently formalized the ceasefire. By the end of the conflict, India held a larger area of Pakistani territory, mainly in fertile regions like Sialkot, Lahore, and Kashmir, while Pakistan's gains were primarily in desert regions opposite Sindh and near the Chumb sector in Kashmir.The war led to significant geopolitical shifts in the subcontinent, with both India and Pakistan feeling a sense of betrayal by the lack of support from their previous allies, the United States and the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-England' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>United Kingdom</a>. This shift resulted in India and Pakistan developing closer relationships with the Soviet Union and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-China' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>China</a>, respectively. The conflict also had profound effects on the military strategies and foreign policies of both nations.In India, the war is often perceived as a strategic victory, leading to changes in military strategy, intelligence gathering, and foreign policy, particularly a closer relationship with the Soviet Union. In Pakistan, the war is remembered for the performance of its air force and is commemorated as Defence Day. However, it also led to critical evaluations of military planning and political outcomes, as well as economic strains and increased tensions in East Pakistan. The war's narrative and its commemoration have been subjects of debate within Pakistan.

Second India–Pakistan War

Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first Prime Minister, passed away on May 27, 1964. He was succeeded by Lal Bahadur Shastri. During Shastri's tenure, in 1965, India and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Republic-of-Pakistan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Pakistan</a> engaged in another war over the contentious region of Kashmir. This conflict, however, did not lead to any significant change in the Kashmir boundary. The war concluded with the Tashkent Agreement, mediated by the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Soviet-Union' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Soviet government</a>. Tragically, Shastri died unexpectedly on the night following the signing of this agreement.The leadership vacuum after Shastri's death led to a contest within the Indian National Congress, resulting in the elevation of Indira Gandhi, Nehru's daughter, to the position of Prime Minister. Gandhi, who had been serving as the Minister for Information and Broadcasting, defeated the right-wing leader Morarji Desai in this contest. However, the 1967 general elections saw the Congress Party's majority in Parliament reduced, reflecting public discontent over rising commodity prices, unemployment, economic stagnation, and a food crisis.Despite these challenges, Gandhi consolidated her position. Morarji Desai, who became Deputy Prime Minister and Finance Minister in her government, along with other senior Congress politicians, initially tried to limit Gandhi's authority. However, under the guidance of her political advisor P. N. Haksar, Gandhi shifted towards socialist policies to regain popular appeal. She successfully abolished the Privy Purse, which was a payment made to former Indian royalty, and launched a significant move towards the nationalization of Indian banks. Although these policies faced resistance from Desai and the business community, they were popular among the general populace.The internal party dynamics reached a turning point when Congress politicians tried to undermine Gandhi by suspending her party membership. This action backfired, leading to a mass exodus of members of parliament who aligned with Gandhi, resulting in the formation of a new faction known as Congress (R). This period marked a significant shift in Indian politics, with Indira Gandhi emerging as a strong central figure, steering the country through a phase of intense political and economic changes.

Indira Gandhi

The Second Sino-Indian War were a series of significant border skirmishes between India and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-China' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>China</a> near the Himalayan Kingdom of Sikkim, then an Indian protectorate. These incidents began on September 11, 1967, at Nathu La and lasted until September 15. A subsequent engagement occurred at Cho La in October 1967, concluding on the same day.In these clashes, India was able to achieve a decisive tactical advantage, effectively pushing back the attacking Chinese forces. The Indian troops managed to destroy many of the PLA fortifications at Nathu La. These clashes are particularly noted for their indication of a shift in the dynamics of China-India relations, marking a decrease in China's 'claim strength' and highlighting India's improved military performance since its defeat in the 1962 Sino-Indian War.

Second Sino-Indian War

In the 1960s, the state of Assam in Northeast India underwent a significant reorganization to form several new states, acknowledging the region's rich ethnic and cultural diversity. The process began in 1963 with the creation of Nagaland, carved out from the Naga Hills district of Assam and parts of Tuensang, becoming India's 16th state. This move recognized the unique cultural identity of the Naga people. Following this, the demands of the Khasi, Jaintia, and Garo people led to the formation of an autonomous state within Assam in 1970, encompassing the Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, and Garo Hills. By 1972, this autonomous region was granted full statehood, emerging as Meghalaya. That same year, Arunachal Pradesh, formerly known as the North-East Frontier Agency, and Mizoram, which included the Mizo Hills in the south, were separated from Assam as union territories. In 1986, both of these territories achieved full statehood.[44]

Formation of Indian Northeastern States

In the early 1970s, India's population surpassed 500 million. Around the same time, the country successfully addressed its longstanding food crisis through the Green Revolution. This agricultural transformation involved government sponsorship of modern farming tools, introduction of new generic seed varieties, and increased financial assistance to farmers. These initiatives significantly boosted the production of food crops like wheat, rice, and corn, as well as commercial crops such as cotton, tea, tobacco, and coffee. The increase in agricultural productivity was particularly notable across the Indo-Gangetic Plain and Punjab.Additionally, under Operation Flood, the government focused on enhancing milk production. This initiative led to a substantial increase in milk production and improved livestock rearing practices throughout India. As a result of these combined efforts, India achieved self-sufficiency in feeding its population and ended its reliance on food imports, which had persisted for two decades.

Green & White Revolution in India

The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, the third of four wars between India and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Republic-of-Pakistan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Pakistan</a>, took place in December 1971 and led to the creation of <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Bangladesh' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Bangladesh</a>. This conflict was primarily over the issue of Bangladesh's independence.The crisis began when the Pakistani army, dominated by Punjabis, refused to transfer power to the predominantly Bengali Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Rahman's proclamation of Bangladeshi independence in March 1971 was met with severe repression by the Pakistani army and pro-Pakistani Islamist militias, leading to widespread atrocities. From March 1971, it is estimated that between 300,000 and 3,000,000 civilians in Bangladesh were killed.[42] Additionally, between 200,000 and 400,000 Bangladeshi women and girls were systematically raped in a campaign of genocidal rape.[43] These events triggered a massive refugee crisis, with an estimated eight to ten million people fleeing to India for refuge.The official war began with Pakistan's Operation Chengiz Khan, involving preemptive aerial strikes on 11 Indian air stations. These strikes resulted in minor damages and temporarily disrupted Indian air operations. In response, India declared war on Pakistan, siding with the Bengali nationalist forces. The conflict expanded to both the eastern and western fronts involving Indian and Pakistani forces.After 13 days of intense fighting, India achieved dominance on the eastern front and sufficient superiority on the western front. The conflict ended on December 16, 1971, with the Eastern defence of Pakistan signing an instrument of surrender in Dhaka. This act officially marked the end of the conflict and led to the formation of Bangladesh. Approximately 93,000 Pakistani servicemen, including both military personnel and civilians, were taken as prisoners by the Indian Army.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971

India's journey into nuclear development began in 1944 when physicist Homi Jehangir Bhabha founded the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. After gaining independence from the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-England' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>British Empire</a> in 1947, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru authorized the development of a nuclear program under Bhabha's direction, focusing initially on peaceful development as per the Atomic Energy Act of 1948. India actively participated in the formation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty but ultimately chose not to sign it.In 1954, Bhabha shifted the nuclear program towards weapons design and production, establishing significant projects like the Trombay Atomic Energy Establishment and the Department of Atomic Energy. By 1958, this program had secured a significant portion of the defense budget. India also entered into agreements with <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Canada' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Canada</a> and the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-United-States' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>United States</a> under the Atoms for Peace program, receiving the CIRUS research reactor for peaceful purposes. However, India chose to develop its indigenous nuclear fuel cycle.Under Project Phoenix, India built a reprocessing plant by 1964 to match the production capacity of CIRUS. The 1960s marked a pivotal shift towards nuclear weapons production under Bhabha and, after his death, Raja Ramanna. The nuclear program faced challenges during the Sino-Indian War in 1962, leading India to perceive the Soviet Union as an unreliable ally and reinforcing its commitment to developing a nuclear deterrent.The nuclear weapons development accelerated under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in the late 1960s, with significant contributions from scientists like Homi Sethna and P. K. Iyengar. The program focused on plutonium rather than uranium for weapons development. In 1974, India conducted its first nuclear test, codenamed 'Smiling Buddha', under extreme secrecy and with limited involvement of military personnel.The test, initially declared as a peaceful nuclear explosion, had significant domestic and international repercussions. It bolstered Indira Gandhi's popularity within India and led to civilian honors for key project members. However, internationally, it prompted the formation of the Nuclear Suppliers Group to control nuclear proliferation and affected India's nuclear relations with countries like Canada and the United States. The test also had profound implications for India's relationship with <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Republic-of-Pakistan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Pakistan</a>, heightening regional nuclear tensions.

Smiling Buddha: First Nuclear Test India

In 1973, the Kingdom of Sikkim experienced anti-royalist riots, marking the beginning of a significant political shift. By 1975, the Prime Minister of Sikkim appealed to the Indian Parliament for Sikkim to become a state within India. In April 1975, the Indian Army entered Gangtok, the capital city, and disarmed the palace guards of the Chogyal, Sikkim's monarch. This military presence was notable, with reports suggesting that India stationed between 20,000 to 40,000 troops in a country of just 200,000 people during the period of the referendum.The referendum that followed showed overwhelming support for ending the monarchy and joining India, with 97.5 percent of voters in favor. On May 16, 1975, Sikkim officially became the 22nd state of the Indian Union, and the monarchy was abolished. To facilitate this incorporation, the Indian Constitution underwent amendments. Initially, the 35th Amendment was passed, making Sikkim an 'associate state' of India, a unique status not granted to any other state. However, within a month, the 36th Amendment was enacted, repealing the 35th Amendment and fully integrating Sikkim as a state of India, with its name added to the First Schedule of the Constitution. These events marked a significant transition in Sikkim's political status, from a monarchy to a state within the Indian Union.

Merger of Sikkim

In the first half of the 1970s, India faced significant economic and social challenges. High inflation was a major issue, exacerbated by the 1973 oil crisis which caused a substantial rise in oil import costs. Additionally, the financial burden of the Bangladesh war and refugee resettlement, coupled with food shortages due to droughts in parts of the country, further strained the economy.This period saw increasing political unrest across India, fueled by the high inflation, economic difficulties, and allegations of corruption against Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and her government. Major events included the Railway Strike of 1974, the Maoist Naxalite movement, student agitations in Bihar, the United Women's Anti-Price Rise Front in Maharashtra, and the Nav Nirman movement in Gujarat.[45]In the political arena, Raj Narain, a candidate from the Samyukta Socialist Party, contested against Indira Gandhi in the 1971 Lok Sabha elections from Rai Bareli. After his defeat, he accused Gandhi of corrupt electoral practices and filed an election petition against her. On June 12, 1975, the Allahabad High Court found Gandhi guilty of misusing government machinery for election purposes.[46] This verdict sparked nationwide strikes and protests led by various opposition parties, demanding Gandhi's resignation. Prominent leader Jaya Prakash Narayan united these parties to resist Gandhi's rule, which he termed a dictatorship, and even called for the Army to intervene.In response to the escalating political crisis, on June 25, 1975, Gandhi advised President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed to declare a state of emergency under the constitution. This move granted the central government extensive powers, purportedly to maintain law and order and national security. The emergency led to the suspension of civil liberties, postponement of elections,[47] dismissal of non-Congress state governments, and imprisonment of around 1,000 opposition leaders and activists.[48] Gandhi's government also enforced a controversial compulsory birth control program.During the emergency, India's economy initially saw benefits, with the cessation of strikes and political unrest leading to increased agricultural and industrial production, national growth, productivity, and job growth. However, the period was also marked by allegations of corruption, authoritarian conduct, and human rights abuses. Police were accused of arresting and torturing innocent people. Sanjay Gandhi, Indira Gandhi's son and unofficial political advisor, faced severe criticism for his role in implementing forced sterilizations and the demolition of slums in Delhi, resulting in casualties, injuries, and displacement of many people.[49]

The Emergency in India

In January 1977, Indira Gandhi dissolved the Lok Sabha and declared that elections to the body were to be held during March 1977. Opposition leaders were also released and promptly formed the Janata alliance to fight the elections. The alliance registered a landslide victory in the election. On the urging of Jayaprakash Narayan, the Janata alliance selected Desai as their parliamentary leader and thus the Prime Minister. Morarji Desai became the first non-Congress Prime Minister of India. The Desai administration established tribunals to investigate Emergency-era abuses, and Indira and Sanjay Gandhi were arrested after a report from the Shah Commission. In 1979, the coalition crumbled and Charan Singh formed an interim government. The Janata Party had become intensely unpopular due to its internecine warfare, and a perceived lack of leadership on solving India's serious economic and social problems.

Janata Interlude

On the morning of October 31, 1984, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated in a shocking event that stunned the nation and the world. At about 9:20 a.m. Indian Standard Time, Gandhi was on her way to be interviewed by British actor Peter Ustinov, who was filming a documentary for Irish television. She was walking through the garden of her residence in New Delhi, unaccompanied by her usual security detail and without her bulletproof vest, which she had been advised to wear constantly after Operation Blue Star.As she passed a wicket gate, two of her bodyguards, Constable Satwant Singh and Sub-Inspector Beant Singh, opened fire. Beant Singh fired three rounds from his revolver into Gandhi's abdomen, and after she had fallen, Satwant Singh shot her with 30 rounds from his sub-machine gun. The assailants then surrendered their weapons, with Beant Singh declaring he had done what he needed to do. In the ensuing chaos, Beant Singh was killed by other security officers, while Satwant Singh was seriously wounded and later captured.The news of Gandhi's assassination was broadcast by Salma Sultan on Doordarshan's evening news, more than ten hours after the event. Controversy surrounded the incident, as it was alleged that Gandhi's secretary, R. K. Dhawan, had overruled intelligence and security officials who had recommended the removal of certain policemen as security threats, including the assassins.The assassination was rooted in the aftermath of Operation Blue Star, a military operation Gandhi had ordered against Sikh militants in the Golden Temple, which had greatly angered the Sikh community. Beant Singh, one of the assassins, was a Sikh who had been removed from Gandhi's security staff after the operation but was reinstated at her insistence.Gandhi was rushed to the All India Institute of Medical Sciences in New Delhi, where she underwent surgery but was declared dead at 2:20 p.m. A postmortem examination revealed that she had been struck by 30 bullets.Following her assassination, the Indian government declared a period of national mourning. Various countries, including <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Republic-of-Pakistan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Pakistan</a> and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Bulgaria' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Bulgaria</a>, also declared days of mourning in Gandhi's honor. Her assassination marked a pivotal moment in Indian history, leading to significant political and communal upheaval in the country.

Assassination of Indira Gandhi

The Bhopal disaster, also known as the Bhopal gas tragedy, was a catastrophic chemical accident that occurred on the night of December 2-3, 1984, at the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India. It is considered the world's worst industrial disaster. Over half a million people in the surrounding towns were exposed to methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas, a highly toxic substance.The official immediate death toll was reported as 2,259, but the actual number of fatalities is believed to be much higher. In 2008, the Government of Madhya Pradesh acknowledged 3,787 deaths related to the gas release and compensated over 574,000 injured individuals.[54] A government affidavit in 2006 cited 558,125 injuries,[55] including severe and permanently disabling injuries. Other estimates suggest that 8,000 people died within the first two weeks, and thousands more succumbed to gas-related diseases subsequently.Union Carbide Corporation (UCC) of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-United-States' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>United States</a>, which owned a majority stake in UCIL, faced extensive legal battles following the disaster. In 1989, UCC agreed to a settlement of $470 million (equivalent to $970 million in 2022) to address claims from the tragedy. UCC sold its stake in UCIL in 1994 to Eveready Industries India Limited (EIIL), which later merged with McLeod Russel (India) Ltd. Cleanup efforts at the site ended in 1998, and control of the site was handed over to the Madhya Pradesh state government. In 2001, Dow Chemical Company purchased UCC, 17 years after the disaster.Legal proceedings in the United States, involving UCC and its then-chief executive officer Warren Anderson, were dismissed and redirected to Indian courts between 1986 and 2012. The US courts determined UCIL was an independent entity in India. In India, both civil and criminal cases were filed in the District Court of Bhopal against UCC, UCIL, and Anderson. In June 2010, seven Indian nationals, former UCIL employees including former chairman Keshub Mahindra, were convicted of causing death by negligence. They received two-year imprisonment sentences and fines, the maximum penalty under Indian law. All were released on bail shortly after the verdict. An eighth accused passed away before the judgement.The Bhopal disaster not only highlighted severe safety and environmental concerns in industrial operations but also raised significant issues regarding corporate responsibility and the challenges of transnational legal redress in cases of large-scale industrial accidents.

Bhopal Disaster

Following the assassination of Indira Gandhi, the Congress party selected her elder son, Rajiv Gandhi, as the next Prime Minister of India. Despite being a relative newcomer to politics, having been elected to Parliament in 1982, Rajiv Gandhi's youth and lack of political experience were viewed positively by a populace weary of the inefficiency and corruption often associated with seasoned politicians. His fresh perspective was seen as a potential solution to India's longstanding challenges. In the subsequent parliamentary elections, capitalizing on the sympathy generated by his mother's assassination, Rajiv Gandhi led the Congress party to a historic victory, securing over 415 seats out of 545.Rajiv Gandhi's tenure as Prime Minister was marked by significant reforms. He relaxed the License Raj, a complex system of licenses, regulations, and accompanying red tape that was required to set up and run businesses in India. These reforms reduced government restrictions on foreign currency, travel, foreign investment, and imports, thus allowing greater freedom for private businesses and attracting foreign investments, which, in turn, bolstered India's national reserves.Under his leadership, India's relationship with the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-United-States' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>United States</a> improved, leading to increased economic aid and scientific cooperation. Rajiv Gandhi was a strong proponent of science and technology, which led to significant advancements in India's telecommunications industry and space program, and laid the foundation for the burgeoning software industry and information technology sector.In 1987, Rajiv Gandhi's government brokered an agreement with Sri Lanka to deploy Indian troops as peacekeepers in the ethnic conflict involving the LTTE. However, the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) became embroiled in violent confrontations, eventually fighting the Tamil rebels they were meant to disarm, leading to significant casualties among Indian soldiers. The IPKF was withdrawn in 1990 by Prime Minister V. P. Singh, but not before thousands of Indian soldiers had lost their lives.However, Rajiv Gandhi's reputation as an honest politician, earning him the nickname 'Mr. Clean' from the press, suffered a severe blow due to the Bofors scandal. This scandal involved allegations of bribery and corruption in defense contracts with a <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Sweden' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Swedish</a> arms manufacturer, undermining his image and raising questions about governmental integrity under his administration.

Rajiv Gandhi Administration

In January 1980, Indira Gandhi and her faction of the Indian National Congress, known as 'Congress(I)', returned to power with a substantial majority. However, her tenure was marked by significant challenges to India's internal security, particularly from insurgencies in Punjab and Assam.In Punjab, the rise of an insurgency posed a serious threat. Militants pressing for Khalistan, a proposed Sikh sovereign state, became increasingly active. The situation escalated dramatically with Operation Blue Star in 1984. This military operation aimed to remove armed militants who had taken refuge in the Golden Temple in Amritsar, the holiest shrine of Sikhism. The operation resulted in the deaths of civilians and caused considerable damage to the temple, leading to widespread anger and resentment in the Sikh community across India. The aftermath of Operation Blue Star saw intensive police operations aimed at quelling militant activities, but these efforts were marred by numerous allegations of human rights abuses and violations of civil liberties.

Operation Blue Star

The 1984 anti-Sikh riots, also known as the 1984 Sikh massacre, were a series of organized pogroms against Sikhs in India. These riots were a response to the assassination of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi by her Sikh bodyguards, which itself was a fallout of Operation Blue Star. The military operation, ordered by Gandhi in June 1984, was aimed at flushing out armed Sikh militants demanding greater rights and autonomy for Punjab from the Harmandir Sahib Sikh temple complex in Amritsar. The operation led to a deadly battle and the deaths of many pilgrims, causing widespread condemnation among Sikhs worldwide.Following Gandhi's assassination, widespread violence erupted, particularly in Delhi and other parts of India. Government estimates suggest approximately 2,800 Sikhs were killed in Delhi[50] and 3,3500 nationwide.[51] However, other sources indicate the death toll could have been as high as 8,000–17,000.[52] The riots resulted in the displacement of thousands,[53] with the Sikh neighborhoods of Delhi being most severely affected.Human rights organizations, newspapers, and many observers believed that the massacre was organized,[50] with political officials connected to the Indian National Congress implicated in the violence. The judicial failure to punish the perpetrators further alienated the Sikh community and fueled support for the Khalistan movement, a Sikh separatist movement. The Akal Takht, the governing body of Sikhism, has labeled the killings as genocide.Human Rights Watch reported in 2011 that the Indian government had not yet prosecuted those responsible for the mass killings. WikiLeaks cables suggested that the United States believed the Indian National Congress was complicit in the riots. While the U.S. did not label the events as genocide, it acknowledged that 'grave human rights violations' occurred. Investigations revealed that the violence was organized with support from the Delhi police and some central government officials. Discoveries of sites in Haryana, where multiple Sikh killings occurred in 1984, further highlighted the extent and organization of the violence.Despite the gravity of the events, there was a significant delay in bringing the perpetrators to justice. It wasn't until December 2018, 34 years after the riots, that a high-profile conviction occurred. Congress leader Sajjan Kumar was sentenced to life imprisonment by the Delhi High Court for his role in the riots. This was one of the very few convictions related to the 1984 anti-Sikh riots, with most cases still pending and only a few resulting in significant sentences.

1984 Anti-Sikh Riots

The insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir, also known as the Kashmir insurgency, is a longstanding separatist conflict against the Indian administration in the region of Jammu and Kashmir. This area has been a focal point of a territorial dispute between India and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Republic-of-Pakistan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Pakistan</a> since their partition in 1947. The insurgency, which began in earnest in 1989, has both internal and external dimensions.Internally, the insurgency's roots lie in a combination of political and democratic governance failures in Jammu and Kashmir. Limited democratic development until the late 1970s and the reversal of democratic reforms by the late 1980s led to increasing local disaffection. The situation was exacerbated by a controversial and disputed election in 1987, which is widely regarded as a catalyst for the insurgency. This election saw allegations of rigging and unfair practices, leading to the formation of armed insurgent groups by some of the state's legislative assembly members.Externally, Pakistan has played a significant role in the insurgency. While Pakistan claims to offer only moral and diplomatic support to the separatist movement, it has been accused by India and the international community of providing arms, training, and support to militants in the region. Former Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf admitted in 2015 that the Pakistani state had supported and trained insurgent groups in Kashmir during the 1990s. This external involvement has also shifted the insurgency's focus from separatism to Islamic fundamentalism, partly due to the influx of jihadist militants after the Soviet-Afghan War.The conflict has resulted in a high number of casualties, including civilians, security personnel, and militants. According to government data, approximately 41,000 people have died because of the insurgency as of March 2017, with the majority of deaths occurring in the 1990s and early 2000s.[56] Non-governmental organizations have suggested higher death tolls. The insurgency has also triggered the large-scale migration of Kashmiri Hindus out of the Kashmir Valley, fundamentally altering the region's demographic and cultural landscape.Since the revocation of Jammu and Kashmir's special status in August 2019, the Indian military has ramped up its counter-insurgency operations in the region. This complex conflict, with its roots in political, historical, and regional dynamics, continues to be one of the most challenging security and human rights issues in India.

Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir

The assassination of Rajiv Gandhi, the former Prime Minister of India, occurred on May 21, 1991, in Sriperumbudur, Tamil Nadu, during an election campaign event. The assassination was carried out by Kalaivani Rajaratnam, also known as Thenmozhi Rajaratnam or Dhanu, a 22-year-old member of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), a Sri Lankan Tamil separatist rebel organization. At the time of the assassination, India had recently concluded its involvement through the Indian Peace Keeping Force in the Sri Lankan Civil War.Rajiv Gandhi was actively campaigning in the southern states of India with G.K. Moopanar. After a campaign stop in Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, he traveled to Sriperumbudur in Tamil Nadu. Upon his arrival at the campaign rally, as he was walking towards the stage to deliver a speech, he was greeted and garlanded by supporters, including Congress workers and school children. The assassin, Kalaivani Rajaratnam, approached Gandhi, and in the guise of bowing to touch his feet, she detonated an explosive-laden belt. The explosion killed Gandhi, the assassin, and 14 others, while grievously injuring 43 additional people.

Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi

Economic liberalization in India, initiated in 1991, marked a significant shift from the previously state-controlled economy to one that is more open to market forces and global trade. This transition aimed to make the Indian economy more market-oriented and consumption-driven, with a focus on increasing private and foreign investment to stimulate economic growth and development. Earlier attempts at liberalization in 1966 and the early 1980s were less comprehensive.The 1991 economic reform, often referred to as the LPG (Liberalisation, Privatisation, and Globalisation) reforms, was largely triggered by a balance of payments crisis, leading to a severe recession. The dissolution of the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-Soviet-Union' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Soviet Union</a>, which left the <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-United-States' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>United States</a> as the sole superpower, also played a role, as did the need to meet the requirements of structural adjustment programs for loans from international financial institutions like the IMF and World Bank.These reforms had profound effects on the Indian economy. They led to a significant increase in foreign investment and steered the economy towards a more service-oriented model. The liberalization process is widely credited with boosting economic growth and modernizing the Indian economy. However, it has also been a subject of debate and critique.Critics of economic liberalization in India point to several concerns. One major issue is the environmental impact, as rapid industrial expansion and relaxed regulations to attract investment might have led to environmental degradation. Another area of concern is the social and economic disparity. While the liberalization has undoubtedly led to economic growth, the benefits have not been evenly distributed across the population, leading to widening income inequality and exacerbating social disparities. This critique reflects the ongoing debate about the balance between economic growth and equitable distribution of its benefits in India's liberalization journey.

Economic Liberalisation in India

The Bombay riots, a series of violent events in Bombay (now Mumbai), Maharashtra, took place between December 1992 and January 1993, resulting in the deaths of approximately 900 people.[57] These riots were primarily fueled by escalating tensions following the demolition of the Babri Masjid by Hindu Karsevaks in Ayodhya in December 1992, and the subsequent large-scale protests and violent reactions from both the Muslim and Hindu communities regarding the Ram Temple issue.The Srikrishna Commission, established by the government to investigate the riots, concluded that there were two distinct phases in the violence. The first phase began immediately after the demolition of the Babri Mosque on 6 December 1992 and was characterized mainly by Muslim instigation as a reaction to the destruction of the mosque. The second phase, primarily a Hindu backlash, occurred in January 1993. This phase was provoked by several incidents, including the killing of Hindu Mathadi workers by Muslim individuals in Dongri, the stabbing of Hindus in Muslim majority areas, and the horrific burning of six Hindus, including a disabled girl, in Radhabai Chawl.The Commission's report highlighted the role of the media in exacerbating the situation, particularly newspapers like Saamna and Navaakal, which published inciting and exaggerated accounts of the Mathadi murders and the Radhabai Chawl incident. Starting from January 8, 1993, the riots intensified, involving confrontations between Hindus led by the Shiv Sena and Muslims, with the involvement of the Bombay underworld being a potential factor.The violence resulted in the deaths of approximately 575 Muslims and 275 Hindus.[58] The Commission noted that what started as a communal conflict was eventually taken over by local criminal elements, seeing an opportunity for personal gain. The Shiv Sena, a right-wing Hindu organization, initially supported the 'retaliation' but later found the violence spiraling out of control, leading to its leaders appealing for an end to the rioting. The Bombay riots represent a dark chapter in India's history, highlighting the dangers of communal tension and the destructive potential of religious and sectarian strife.

Bombay Riots

India's nuclear program faced significant challenges following the country's first nuclear test, codenamed Smiling Buddha, in 1974. The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), formed in response to the test, imposed a technological embargo on India (and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Republic-of-Pakistan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Pakistan</a>, which was pursuing its own nuclear program). This embargo severely hampered India's nuclear development due to a lack of indigenous resources and a dependence on imported technology and assistance.Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, in an effort to ease international tensions, declared to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) that India's nuclear program was intended for peaceful purposes, despite authorizing preliminary work on a hydrogen bomb. However, the state of emergency in 1975 and the subsequent political instability left the nuclear program without clear leadership and direction. Despite these setbacks, work on the hydrogen bomb continued, albeit slowly, under mechanical engineer M. Srinivasan.Prime Minister Morarji Desai, who was known for his advocacy of peace, initially paid little attention to the nuclear program. However, in 1978, Desai's government transferred physicist Raja Ramanna to the Indian Ministry of Defence and re-accelerated the nuclear program.The discovery of Pakistan's clandestine atomic bomb program, which was more militaristically structured compared to India's, added urgency to India's nuclear efforts. It was evident that Pakistan was close to succeeding in its nuclear ambitions.In 1980, Indira Gandhi returned to power, and under her leadership, the nuclear program regained momentum. Despite ongoing tensions with Pakistan, particularly over the issue of Kashmir, and international scrutiny, India continued to advance its nuclear capabilities. The program made significant strides under the leadership of Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, an aerospace engineer, particularly in the development of hydrogen bombs and missile technology.The political landscape shifted again in 1989 with the Janata Dal party, led by V.P. Singh, coming to power. Diplomatic tensions with Pakistan intensified, especially over the Kashmir insurgency, and the Indian missile program achieved success with the development of the Prithvi missiles.Successive Indian governments were cautious about conducting further nuclear tests due to fear of international backlash. However, the public support for the nuclear program was strong, leading Prime Minister Narasimha Rao to consider additional tests in 1995. These plans were halted when <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-the-United-States' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>American</a> intelligence detected test preparations at the Pokhran Test Range in Rajasthan. U.S. President Bill Clinton exerted pressure on Rao to stop the tests, and Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto of Pakistan vocally criticized India's actions.In 1998, under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, India conducted a series of nuclear tests, Pokhran-II, becoming the sixth country to join the nuclear club. These tests were conducted with utmost secrecy to avoid detection, involving meticulous planning by scientists, military officers, and politicians. The successful completion of these tests marked a significant milestone in India's nuclear journey, asserting its position as a nuclear power despite international criticism and regional tensions.

Pokhran-II Nuclear Tests

The 2001 Gujarat earthquake, also known as the Bhuj earthquake, was a devastating natural disaster that occurred on January 26, 2001, at 08:46 am IST. The earthquake's epicenter was located approximately 9 km south-southwest of the village of Chobari in Bhachau Taluka of the Kutch (Kachchh) District in Gujarat, India.This intraplate earthquake measured 7.6 on the moment magnitude scale and occurred at a depth of 17.4 km (10.8 mi). The human and material toll of the earthquake was immense. It resulted in the deaths of between 13,805 to 20,023 people, including 18 in southeastern <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Republic-of-Pakistan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Pakistan</a>. Additionally, around 167,000 people were injured. The earthquake also caused widespread property damage, with nearly 340,000 buildings being destroyed.[59]

Gujarat Earthquake

On December 26, 2004, a massive undersea megathrust earthquake, known as the Sumatra-Andaman earthquake, struck off the west coast of northern Sumatra, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Indonesia' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Indonesia</a>, at 07:58:53 local time (UTC+7). This devastating earthquake, measuring between 9.1 and 9.3 on the moment magnitude scale, was one of the deadliest natural disasters in recorded history. It was caused by a rupture along the fault between the Burma Plate and the Indian Plate, reaching a Mercalli intensity of up to IX in some areas.The earthquake triggered a colossal tsunami with waves reaching up to 30 meters (100 feet) high, infamously referred to as the Boxing Day Tsunami. This tsunami ravaged communities along the coasts of the Indian Ocean, resulting in an estimated 227,898 deaths across 14 countries. The disaster particularly impacted regions such as Aceh in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Tamil Nadu in India, and Khao Lak in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Thailand' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Thailand</a>, with Banda Aceh reporting the highest number of casualties. It remains the deadliest natural disaster of the 21st century.This event was the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Asia and the 21st century, and one of the most powerful in the world since modern seismography began in 1900. The earthquake had an extraordinarily long duration of faulting, lasting between eight and ten minutes. It caused significant vibrations of the planet, measuring up to 10 mm (0.4 in), and even triggered remote earthquakes as far away as Alaska.

2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami

The 2008 Mumbai attacks, also known as the 26/11 attacks, were a series of horrific terrorist incidents that occurred in November 2008. These attacks were executed by 10 members of Lashkar-e-Taiba, a militant Islamist organization based in <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Republic-of-Pakistan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Pakistan</a>. Over four days, they carried out 12 coordinated shooting and bombing assaults across Mumbai, resulting in widespread condemnation globally. The attacks began on Wednesday, November 26, and lasted until Saturday, November 29, 2008. A total of 175 people were killed, including nine of the attackers, and more than 300 were injured.[60]The attacks targeted several locations in South Mumbai, including the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus, the Oberoi Trident, the Taj Palace &amp; Tower, the Leopold Cafe, Cama Hospital, Nariman House, Metro Cinema, and areas behind the Times of India building and St. Xavier's College. Additionally, there was an explosion in Mazagaon, in Mumbai's port area, and another in a taxi at Vile Parle.By the morning of November 28, all locations, except for the Taj Hotel, had been secured by Mumbai Police and security forces. The siege at the Taj Hotel was concluded on November 29 through Operation Black Tornado, conducted by India's National Security Guards (NSG), which resulted in the death of the remaining attackers.Ajmal Kasab, the only attacker captured alive, was executed in 2012. Before his execution, he disclosed that the attackers were members of Lashkar-e-Taiba and were directed from Pakistan, confirming the Indian Government's initial claims. Pakistan acknowledged that Kasab was a Pakistani citizen. Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi, identified as a key planner of the attacks, was released on bail in 2015 and later re-arrested in 2021. The Pakistani government's handling of individuals involved in the attacks has been a subject of controversy and criticism, including comments from former Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif. In 2022, Sajid Majeed Mir, one of the attack's masterminds, was convicted in Pakistan for funding terrorist activities.The Mumbai attacks significantly impacted India-Pakistan relations, leading to increased tensions and international concern over cross-border terrorism and regional security. The incident remains one of the most notorious terrorist acts in India's history and has had lasting implications for global anti-terrorism efforts and India's internal security policies.

2008 Mumbai Terror Attacks

The Hindutva movement, advocating Hindu nationalism, has been a significant political force in India since its inception in the 1920s. The Bharatiya Jana Sangh, established in the 1950s, was the primary political party representing this ideology. In 1977, the Jana Sangh merged with other parties to form the Janata Party, but this coalition disintegrated by 1980. Following this, former members of the Jana Sangh regrouped to form the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP).Over the decades, the BJP steadily grew its support base and has become the most dominant political force in India. In September 2013, Narendra Modi, then the Chief Minister of Gujarat, was announced as the BJP's prime ministerial candidate for the 2014 Lok Sabha (national parliamentary) elections. This decision initially faced opposition within the party, including from BJP founding member L. K. Advani.The BJP's strategy for the 2014 elections marked a departure from its traditional approach, with Modi playing a central role in a presidential-style campaign. This strategy proved successful in the 16th national general election held in early 2014. The BJP, leading the National Democratic Alliance (NDA), achieved a significant victory, securing an absolute majority and forming the government under Modi's leadership.The mandate received by the Modi government allowed the BJP to make significant gains in subsequent state assembly elections across India. The government launched various initiatives aimed at boosting manufacturing, digital infrastructure, and cleanliness. Notable among these were the Make in India, Digital India, and Swachh Bharat Mission campaigns. These initiatives reflect the Modi government's focus on modernization, economic development, and infrastructure enhancement, contributing to its popularity and political strength in the country.

Narendra Modi Administration

On August 6, 2019, the Government of India made a significant constitutional change by revoking the special status or autonomy granted to the state of Jammu and Kashmir under Article 370 of the Indian Constitution. This action removed the special provisions that had been in place since 1947, affecting a region that has been a subject of territorial disputes among India, <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Republic-of-Pakistan' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>Pakistan</a>, and <a href='https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-China' rel='noopener noreferrer' target='_blank'>China</a>.Accompanying this revocation, the Indian government implemented several measures in the Kashmir Valley. Communication lines were cut off, a move that lasted for five months. Thousands of additional security forces were deployed to the region to prevent any potential unrest. High-profile Kashmiri political figures, including former chief ministers, were detained. These actions were described by government officials as preemptive steps to avert violence. They also justified the revocation as a means to allow the people of the state to fully access various government programs, such as reservation benefits, the right to education, and the right to information.In the Kashmir Valley, the response to these changes was heavily controlled through the suspension of communication services and the imposition of a curfew under Section 144. While many Indian nationalists celebrated the move as a step towards public order and prosperity in Kashmir, the decision was met with a mixed reaction among political parties in India. The ruling Bharatiya Janata Party and several other parties supported the revocation. However, it faced opposition from parties including the Indian National Congress, Jammu &amp; Kashmir National Conference, and others.In Ladakh, which was part of the state of Jammu and Kashmir, reactions were divided along community lines. While people in the predominantly Shia Muslim area of Kargil protested against the decision, the Buddhist community in Ladakh largely supported it.The President of India issued an order under Article 370 to supersede the 1954 Presidential Order, effectively nullifying the provisions of autonomy granted to Jammu and Kashmir. The Indian Home Minister introduced a Reorganisation Bill in Parliament, proposing the division of the state into two union territories, each to be governed by a lieutenant governor and a unicameral legislature. This bill and the resolution for revoking Article 370's special status were debated and passed in both houses of the Indian Parliament—the Rajya Sabha (upper house) and the Lok Sabha (lower house)—on August 5 and 6, 2019, respectively. This marked a significant shift in the governance and administration of Jammu and Kashmir, reflecting a major change in India's approach to this strategically important and politically sensitive region.

India revokes Article 370

Hindistan'ın nükleer programı, 1974'te ülkenin ilk nükleer testinin kodlanan Buda'yı kodlayan Buda'nın ardından önemli zorluklarla karşı karşıya kaldı. Teste yanıt olarak kurulan Nükleer Tedarikçiler Grubu (NSG) Hindistan'a (ve kendi nükleer programını sürdüren <a href="https://history-maps.com/tr/story/History-of-Republic-of-Pakistan" target="_blank">Pakistan'a</a> ) teknolojik bir ambargo getirdi. Bu ambargo, yerli kaynakların eksikliği ve ithal teknoloji ve yardıma bağımlılık nedeniyle Hindistan'ın nükleer gelişimini ciddi şekilde engelledi. Başbakan Indira Gandhi, uluslararası gerilimleri hafifletmek için Uluslararası Atom Enerjisi Ajansı'na (IAEA) Hindistan'ın nükleer programının hidrojen bombası üzerindeki ön çalışmalara izin vermesine rağmen barışçıl amaçlar için tasarlandığını ilan etti. Bununla birlikte, 1975'teki olağanüstü hal ve sonraki siyasi istikrarsızlık nükleer programı açık liderlik ve yönetmeden terk etti. Bu aksiliklere rağmen, Hidrojen bombası üzerinde çalışmak, Makine Mühendisi M. Srinivasan altında yavaş da olsa devam etti. Barış savunuculuğu ile tanınan Başbakan Morarji Desai, başlangıçta nükleer programa çok az dikkat etti. Bununla birlikte, 1978'de Desai hükümeti fizikçi Raja Ramanna'yı Hindistan Savunma Bakanlığı'na aktardı ve nükleer programı yeniden düzenledi. Hindistan'a kıyasla daha militarist olarak yapılandırılmış olan Pakistan'ın gizli atom bombası programının keşfi, Hindistan'ın nükleer çabalarına aciliyet ekledi. Pakistan'ın nükleer hırslarında başarılı olmaya yakın olduğu açıktı. 1980'de Indira Gandhi iktidara döndü ve liderliği altında nükleer program ivme kazandı. Pakistan ile, özellikle Keşmir ve uluslararası inceleme konusunda devam eden gerilimlere rağmen, Hindistan nükleer yeteneklerini ilerletmeye devam etti. Program, özellikle hidrojen bombaları ve füze teknolojisinin geliştirilmesinde bir havacılık mühendisi olan Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam'ın önderliğinde önemli adımlar attı. Siyasi manzara 1989 yılında VP Singh liderliğindeki Janata Dal partisi ile tekrar değişti. Pakistanlı diplomatik gerginlikler, özellikle Keşmir isyanı üzerinde yoğunlaştı ve Hint Füze Programı Prithvi füzelerinin gelişimi ile başarı elde etti. Ardışık Hint hükümetleri, uluslararası tepki korkusu nedeniyle daha fazla nükleer test yapma konusunda temkinliydi. Bununla birlikte, nükleer program için kamu desteği güçlüydü ve başbakan Narasimha Rao'nun 1995 <a href="https://history-maps.com/tr/story/History-of-the-United-States" target="_blank">yılında</a> ek testleri göz önünde bulundurması için önde gelen. ABD Başkanı Bill Clinton, testleri durdurmak için Rao'ya baskı yaptı ve Pakistan Başbakanı Benazir Bhutto Hindistan'ın eylemlerini sesli olarak eleştirdi. 1998 yılında Başbakan Atal Bihari Vajpayee uyarınca Hindistan, bir dizi nükleer test gerçekleştirdi: Pokhran-II, nükleer kulübe katılan altıncı ülke oldu. Bu testler, bilim adamları, askeri subaylar ve politikacılar tarafından titiz planlamayı içeren tespitten kaçınmak için azami gizlilik ile gerçekleştirildi. Bu testlerin başarılı bir şekilde tamamlanması, Hindistan'ın nükleer yolculuğunda önemli bir kilometre taşını işaret ederek uluslararası eleştirilere ve bölgesel gerilimlere rağmen nükleer enerji olarak konumunu ileri sürdü.

Pokhran-II nükleer testler