The Great Northern War (1700–1721) was a pivotal conflict in the history of Sweden, marking the end of its "Age of Greatness" (Stormaktstiden) and its decline as a major European power. The war was fought between Sweden, led by King Charles XII, and a coalition of Russia, Denmark-Norway, Poland-Lithuania, and Saxony, later joined by Prussia and Hanover. The coalition aimed to challenge Sweden’s dominance in northern Europe and reclaim territories Sweden had acquired during the 17th century.
Background
By the early 1700s, Sweden had established itself as a dominant power in the Baltic region through victories in wars against Denmark, Russia, and Poland, particularly during the Thirty Years' War and subsequent conflicts. However, Sweden’s neighbors, particularly Russia, under Tsar Peter the Great, sought to break Sweden’s supremacy and gain access to the Baltic Sea. This led to the formation of a coalition to dismantle Swedish control in the region.
Initial Swedish Success
The war began in 1700 with a coordinated attack on Sweden by Denmark, Poland-Saxony, and Russia. Initially, Charles XII proved to be a highly capable military leader. In swift campaigns, he knocked Denmark out of the war by invading Zealand and forcing the Treaty of Travendal. He then turned his forces against Russia and decisively defeated Peter the Great’s army at the Battle of Narva in 1700, despite being heavily outnumbered.
The Turning Point: Invasion of Russia
After his early successes, Charles XII turned his attention to Poland and Saxony, forcing Augustus the Strong to abdicate the Polish throne by 1706. However, instead of capitalizing on his victories, Charles made the fateful decision to invade Russia in 1708, aiming to depose Peter the Great and secure Swedish dominance. This campaign proved disastrous. After advancing deep into Russia, Charles's forces were decimated by harsh weather, attrition, and Russian scorched-earth tactics. The Swedish army suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Poltava in 1709, which marked the turning point of the war.
Swedish Decline
Following Poltava, Charles XII fled to the Ottoman Empire, leaving Sweden vulnerable. The defeat emboldened Sweden’s enemies, leading to renewed attacks on Swedish territories. Denmark, Poland, Russia, and Prussia invaded Swedish holdings in the Baltic and northern Germany. Over the next several years, Sweden lost significant territories, including Livonia, Estonia, Ingria, and parts of Finland.
End of the War and Aftermath
Charles XII returned to Sweden in 1715, but he was unable to reverse Sweden’s decline. He continued to wage war, invading Norway in 1718, where he was killed in battle. The war continued until the Treaty of Nystad in 1721, which formalized Sweden's defeat and territorial losses. Sweden ceded vast territories to Russia, including Livonia, Estonia, and Ingria, while also relinquishing control over parts of Finland and the Baltic Sea.
The Great Northern War marked the end of Sweden's era as a great power in Europe. Russia, under Peter the Great, emerged as the dominant force in the Baltic region, laying the foundation for its future role as a major European power. For Sweden, the war signified a dramatic decline, and the country shifted from an aggressive, expansionist empire to a smaller, more neutral state. The war also contributed to the eventual establishment of Russia as an empire and Peter’s title as Emperor. In the context of Swedish history, the Great Northern War was a major turning point, leading to the end of its military dominance and the decline of its empire. Sweden's losses in the war reshaped the political landscape of northern Europe for centuries to come.