Iron Age Scotland

From around 700 BCE extending into Roman times, Scotland's Iron Age featured forts and defended farmsteads, suggesting quarrelsome tribes and petty kingdoms. The Clava cairns near Inverness, with their complex geometries and astronomical alignments, represent smaller, possibly individual tombs rather than the communal Neolithic tombs.

Brythonic Celtic culture and language spread into southern Scotland after the 8th century BCE, likely through cultural contact rather than invasion, leading to the development of kingdoms. Large fortified settlements expanded, such as the Votadini stronghold at Traprain Law, East Lothian. Numerous small duns, hill forts, and ring forts were built, and impressive brochs like Mousa Broch in Shetland were constructed. Souterrain passageways and island crannogs became common, probably for defensive purposes.

Over 100 large-scale excavations of Iron Age sites, dating from the 8th century BCE to the 1st century CE, have produced numerous radiocarbon dates. The Iron Age in Britain, influenced by continental styles like La Tène, is divided into periods paralleling continental cultures:

• Earliest Iron Age (800–600 BCE): Hallstatt C
• Early Iron Age (600–400 BCE): Hallstatt D and La Tène I
• Middle Iron Age (400–100 BCE): La Tène I, II, and III
• Late Iron Age (100–50 BCE): La Tène III
• Latest Iron Age (50 BCE – 100 CE)

Developments included new pottery types, increased agricultural cultivation, and settlement in areas with heavier soils. The transition from the Bronze Age saw the decline of the bronze trade, possibly due to the rise of iron.

Social and economic status during the Iron Age was expressed through cattle, which were a significant investment and source of wealth, although there was a shift towards sheep rearing in the later Iron Age. Salt was a key commodity, with evidence of salt production in East Anglia. Iron Age coinage, including gold staters and bronze potin coins, reflects the economic and political landscape. Notable coin hoards include the Silsden Hoard and the Hallaton Treasure.

Trade links with the continent, especially from the late 2nd century BCE onwards, integrated Britain into Roman trading networks, evidenced by imports of wine, olive oil, and pottery. Strabo recorded Britain's exports as grain, cattle, gold, silver, iron, hides, slaves, and hunting dogs.

The Roman invasion marked the end of the Iron Age in southern Britain, although Roman cultural assimilation was gradual. Iron Age beliefs and practices persisted in areas with weak or no Roman rule, with some Roman influence evident in place names and settlement structures.