Collapse of the clan system

The Highland clan system had long been a challenge for Scottish rulers, predating the 17th century. James VI's efforts to assert control included the Statutes of Iona, which aimed to integrate clan leaders into wider Scottish society. This began a gradual transformation where, by the late 18th century, clan chiefs viewed themselves more as commercial landlords rather than patriarchs. Initially, tenants paid monetary rents instead of in-kind, and rent increases became more frequent.

In the 1710s, the Dukes of Argyll began auctioning land leases, fully implementing this by 1737, replacing the traditional principle of dùthchas, which required clan chiefs to provide land for their members. This commercial outlook spread among the Highland elite but was not shared by their tenants. The integration of clan chiefs into Scottish and British society led many to accumulate substantial debts. From the 1770s, borrowing against Highland estates became easier, and lenders, often from outside the Highlands, were quick to foreclose on defaults. This financial mismanagement led to the sale of many Highland estates between 1770 and 1850, with a peak in estate sales occurring towards the end of this period.

The 1745 Jacobite rebellion marked a brief resurgence in the military importance of Highland clans. However, following their defeat at Culloden, clan leaders swiftly resumed their transition to commercial landlords. This shift was accelerated by punitive post-rebellion laws, such as the Heritable Jurisdictions Act of 1746, which transferred judicial powers from clan chiefs to Scottish courts. Historian T. M. Devine, however, cautions against attributing the collapse of clanship solely to these measures, noting that significant social changes in the Highlands began in the 1760s and 1770s, driven by market pressures from the industrializing Lowlands.

The aftermath of the 1745 rebellion saw 41 properties of Jacobite rebels forfeited to the Crown, most of which were auctioned to pay creditors. Thirteen were retained and managed by the government between 1752 and 1784. The 1730s changes by the Dukes of Argyll had displaced many tacksmen, a trend that became policy across the Highlands from the 1770s. By the early 19th century, tacksmen had largely disappeared, many emigrating to North America with their tenants, taking their capital and entrepreneurial spirit with them.

Agricultural improvements swept the Highlands between 1760 and 1850, leading to the infamous Highland Clearances. These evictions varied regionally: in the eastern and southern Highlands, communal farming townships were replaced by larger enclosed farms. In the north and west, including the Hebrides, crofting communities were established as land was reallocated for large pastoral sheep farms. Displaced tenants moved to coastal crofts or poor-quality land. Sheep farming's profitability increased, supporting higher rents. Some crofting communities worked in the kelp industry or fishing, with small croft sizes ensuring they sought additional employment.

The Highland potato famine of 1846 hit crofting communities hard. By 1850, charitable relief efforts had ceased, and emigration was promoted by landlords, charities, and the government. Nearly 11,000 people received assisted passages between 1846 and 1856, with many more emigrating independently or with assistance. The famine affected around 200,000 people, and many who stayed behind became more engaged in temporary migration for work. By the time the famine ended, long-term migration had become common, with tens of thousands participating in seasonal industries such as the herring fishery. The clearances led to even greater emigration from the Highlands, a trend that continued, except during World War I, until the Great Depression. This period saw a significant outflow of Highland population, reshaping the social and economic landscape of the region.