
The Occupation of Outer Mongolia by the Beiyang government from October 1919 to March 1921 marked a tumultuous chapter in Mongolia's struggle for independence. Following the revocation of the autonomy of the Bogd Khanate, the Chinese government attempted to consolidate control over the region but faced significant resistance from both Mongolian nationalists and external powers, ultimately leading to the collapse of Chinese occupation.
Background
The seeds of conflict were sown during the Mongolian Revolution of 1911, when Outer Mongolia declared independence from the Qing dynasty as part of the larger Xinhai Revolution. The newly established Republic of China claimed sovereignty over all Qing territories, including Outer Mongolia, and sought to reintegrate the region into the Chinese state. However, the 1915 Kyakhta Agreement, brokered with Russia's involvement, recognized Mongolia’s autonomy under Chinese suzerainty.
By the late 1910s, Russia's influence in Mongolia waned due to its preoccupation with World War I and the subsequent Russian Revolution. This created a power vacuum that the Beiyang government of China sought to exploit. Mongolian nobles, disillusioned with the Bogd Khan's theocratic regime, saw an opportunity to reassert their influence by collaborating with China.
The Chinese Occupation
Prime Minister Duan Qirui spearheaded the Chinese plan to reclaim Mongolia, using it as an opportunity to bolster national prestige and redirect attention from domestic unrest. The Anhui clique warlord Xu Shuzheng, a close ally of Duan, was tasked with leading the military expedition. Xu framed the invasion as a response to Mongolian requests for protection against Bolshevik incursions, though his true aim was to assert Chinese sovereignty.
In October 1919, Xu led a force of 4,000 troops into Urga (modern Ulaanbaatar) without resistance, quickly expanding Chinese control over the region. The occupation initially won acclaim within China, but it soon became clear that Xu's administration prioritized consolidating Anhui clique power over addressing local concerns. He humiliated Mongolian leaders, including the Bogd Khan, forcing them to participate in a symbolic ceremony reaffirming Chinese rule.
Mongolian Resistance and the Role of External Forces
Chinese occupation faced immediate resistance from Mongolian nationalists. The Mongolian People's Party (MPP) began to coalesce around opposition to Chinese rule, drawing support from lamas, nobles, and ordinary Mongols disillusioned by the occupation’s excesses, including looting and atrocities committed by Chinese troops.
Meanwhile, Baron Roman von Ungern-Sternberg, a White Russian general driven by a vision of restoring monarchist and theocratic rule, emerged as a significant figure. Ungern swept into Mongolia in late 1920 with his Asiatic Cavalry Division, composed of White Russian exiles, Buryats, and Mongolian forces. In February 1921, his forces defeated the Chinese garrison in Urga and restored the Bogd Khan as a nominal ruler.
However, Ungern's brutal and eccentric rule alienated many Mongols. By mid-1921, Soviet-backed Mongolian revolutionaries, led by Damdin Sükhbaatar and supported by the Red Army, launched a campaign to expel both Chinese and White Russian forces. In June 1921, they routed Ungern's forces, bringing an end to his short-lived rule.
Aftermath
The Chinese occupation failed to consolidate control over Outer Mongolia. The withdrawal of Chinese forces following the Zhili-Anhui War in China and the rise of the Soviet-backed MPP led to Mongolia's de facto independence. By 1924, the Mongolian People's Republic was established, ending the Bogd Khanate and solidifying Mongolia’s status as a Soviet-aligned socialist state.
Legacy
For China, the occupation marked the beginning of the end for the Beiyang government, as internal divisions and external defeats accelerated the fragmentation of central authority. Mongolia, meanwhile, entered a new phase of its history, transitioning from a theocratic monarchy to a communist state under Soviet influence.
The episode highlighted the complex interplay of Chinese, Russian, and Mongolian ambitions in the region and underscored the geopolitical struggles that defined early 20th-century East Asia.