
The Mongolian Revolution of 1921 marked a pivotal chapter in Mongolia's history, as it led to the establishment of the Mongolian People's Republic and ended both Chinese occupation and White Russian influence. Supported by the Soviet Red Army, Mongolian revolutionaries overthrew foreign forces and restructured the country under a new communist-aligned regime, replacing the previous theocratic rule of the Bogd Khan.
Rise of Resistance
Chinese occupation met resistance from Mongolian revolutionaries, whose efforts coalesced around two underground groups: the Consular Hill group, led by Dogsomyn Bodoo and Khorloogiin Choibalsan, and the East Urga group, headed by Soliin Danzan and Damdin Sükhbaatar. These groups formed the Mongolian People's Party (MPP) in 1920, laying the groundwork for revolution. They sought Soviet assistance to expel Chinese forces and were supported by the Bolsheviks, who viewed Mongolia as a potential buffer state against White Russian forces and Japanese expansion.
The Involvement of Baron Ungern-Sternberg
In late 1920, Baron Roman von Ungern-Sternberg, a White Russian general, entered Mongolia with his Asiatic Cavalry Division. Driven by monarchist and theocratic ambitions, Ungern sought to restore the Bogd Khan as a symbol of traditional rule. In February 1921, his forces captured Urga (modern Ulaanbaatar), expelling Chinese troops and reinstating the Bogd Khan. Ungern’s harsh and eccentric rule alienated many Mongols. His regime was marked by violence and chaos, undermining his support among locals and paving the way for revolutionary forces backed by the Soviet Union.
Formation of the Revolutionary Government
With Soviet backing, the MPP established a provisional government in Kyakhta in March 1921. The MPP army, led by Damdin Sükhbaatar, grew to 800 fighters, supplemented by Red Army troops. The revolutionaries launched a campaign to expel remaining Chinese forces and prepare to confront Ungern-Sternberg.
Victory over Ungern and Chinese Occupation
In June 1921, combined Soviet and Mongolian forces decisively defeated Ungern-Sternberg's army near Urga. On July 6, 1921, revolutionary forces entered Urga, ending White Russian control. Concurrently, remaining Chinese forces in Mongolia retreated to Xinjiang or were expelled by Mongolian and Soviet troops.
Establishment of the Mongolian People's Republic
On July 11, 1921, the Bogd Khan was reinstated as a constitutional monarch under the new government. However, his role was largely symbolic, and real power shifted to the MPP. After the Bogd Khan's death in 1924, the monarchy was abolished, and the Mongolian People's Republic was declared, marking the beginning of communist rule aligned with the Soviet Union.
Impact on China and Russia
For China, the revolution marked the end of its control over Outer Mongolia, though the Republic of China did not formally recognize Mongolia's independence until 1946. In Russia, the defeat of Ungern-Sternberg and the establishment of a Soviet-aligned state in Mongolia solidified the Bolsheviks' influence in Central Asia.
Legacy
The Mongolian Revolution of 1921 transformed Mongolia into the first Soviet satellite state, initiating decades of communist rule that lasted until 1990. While it ended foreign occupation, it also entrenched Soviet political and cultural dominance, reshaping Mongolia's identity and governance in the 20th century.