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History of Mongolia

Mongolian Revolution of 1911

© Anonymous

History of Mongolia

Mongolian Revolution of 1911

1911 Nov 1 - 1912 Aug
Mongolia
Mongolian Revolution of 1911
Togtokh (left) and Bayar in Khüree. © Anonymous

The Mongolian Revolution of 1911 was a pivotal moment when Outer Mongolia declared independence from the crumbling Qing Empire during the broader upheaval of the Xinhai Revolution. This relatively peaceful separation arose from a combination of internal economic struggles, resentment over Qing assimilation policies, and external influences, notably from Russia.


Background and Economic Decline

By the early 20th century, Outer Mongolia faced severe economic hardships. The repercussions of the Qing's financial strain, particularly after the costly Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864), had disrupted the Mongolian economy. The shift to silver-based taxation forced many Mongols to borrow from Han merchants at exorbitant interest rates, leading to massive debts and the depletion of their livestock, which was the cornerstone of their livelihood.


This financial deterioration coincided with increasing Qing attempts to modernize and centralize their empire. For centuries, the Qing had maintained a degree of separation between Han Chinese and Mongols, restricting migration and cultural interaction. However, the pressures of Western imperialism and military defeats, such as the First Sino-Japanese War (1895) and Russia's expansion into Manchuria, prompted a shift. The Qing launched the New Administration reforms, aimed at consolidating their frontier territories, including Mongolia, as protective barriers.


In Outer Mongolia, these reforms were not just about modernization but also about assimilation. By 1910, prohibitions against Han Chinese settlement in Mongolia had been lifted, and efforts began to colonize the steppe, intermarry Han and Mongols, and promote the Chinese language. These policies stoked fears among the Mongolian nobility and lamas, who viewed them as a direct threat to their way of life.


Resistance and Rising Tensions

The Qing’s attempt to implement these reforms in Outer Mongolia faced immediate resistance. Sando, a Mongolian viceroy appointed by the Qing, arrived in Urga (modern Ulaanbaatar) in 1910 to oversee the reforms. He established new administrative offices, planned to organize a Mongolian-Chinese army, and set up barracks near Urga. However, his initiatives provoked outrage among the Mongolian elite and commoners alike.


Petitions from Mongolian nobles and lamas pleaded for the preservation of traditional ways, but Sando dismissed their concerns. Relations between the Mongolian populace and Qing authorities grew increasingly hostile. A series of incidents, including a brawl between lamas and Chinese carpenters, escalated tensions. When Sando demanded the arrest of lamas involved in the disturbance, the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, Mongolia’s spiritual leader, refused to comply. This defiance underscored the crumbling authority of Qing officials in the region.


The Push for Independence

By mid-1911, prominent Mongolian nobles, including Prince Namnansüren, began organizing resistance. Under the guise of a religious festival, they convened a secret meeting of nobles and lamas to discuss Mongolia's future. The assembly debated whether to submit to the Qing or resist. Ultimately, a group of eighteen nobles decided that independence was the only viable path. They persuaded the Khutuktu to send a delegation to Russia, seeking support against the Qing and offering economic concessions in return.


The delegation reached St. Petersburg with a letter from the Khutuktu and leading Khalkha nobles. While Russia was reluctant to support outright independence, it saw value in Mongolia as a buffer state against China and Japan. The Russians decided to provide diplomatic backing for Mongolian autonomy within the Qing Empire rather than full independence, though they increased their military presence in Urga to safeguard the returning delegation.


Declaration of Independence

Events in China further emboldened the Mongols. In October 1911, the Wuchang Uprising ignited the Xinhai Revolution, rapidly eroding Qing authority. Sando, facing mounting unrest in Mongolia and turmoil in China, sought permission to resign but was denied. Meanwhile, the Mongolian delegation returned from Russia with assurances of support, galvanizing local leaders.


In November, the Provisional Government of Khalkha was formed, and the Khutuktu, with the backing of nobles and lamas, called for the mobilization of troops. On November 28, Mongolian leaders informed Sando of their decision to declare independence and install the Khutuktu as their ruler. Though Sando pleaded for a compromise, he was ordered to leave Mongolia within 24 hours. His small force of 150 troops was disarmed by Mongolian militias and Russian Cossacks. On December 1, 1911, the Provisional Government proclaimed the end of Qing rule and declared the establishment of a theocratic monarchy under the Bogd Khan, formally enthroning the Khutuktu on December 29.


Aftermath and Legacy

The revolution was largely peaceful in Outer Mongolia, thanks to the restraint of Qing officials and the presence of Russian troops. By January 1912, Qing authority in the region had effectively collapsed. The Mongolian military successfully expelled Qing forces from western Mongolia, though some resistance persisted, such as in Khovd, where Qing troops were defeated in August 1912.


While Outer Mongolia declared independence, Inner Mongolia remained under Chinese control, despite some efforts by Inner Mongolian nobles to join the revolution. The new Mongolian state received widespread symbolic support from various Mongol regions, but practical reunification proved elusive. Russia played a key role in supporting Mongolia’s autonomy while maintaining its strategic interests, avoiding direct confrontation with China.


The Mongolian Revolution of 1911 marked the beginning of the Bogd Khanate, Mongolia’s short-lived theocratic state, and laid the groundwork for the country’s later struggles for independence and modernization. It also reflected the broader currents of nationalism and resistance to imperial domination that defined the early 20th century.

Page Last Updated: 12/30/2024

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