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The Mongol Empire, which had reached its zenith under Genghis Khan and his immediate successors, began to fragment in the late 13th century, a process accelerated by the establishment of the Yuan dynasty by Kublai Khan in 1271. This fragmentation led to the emergence of four distinct khanates: the Yuan dynasty in China, the Golden Horde in Eastern Europe, the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia, and the Ilkhanate in the Middle East. Though the Yuan emperors in theory retained a nominal suzerainty over the western khanates, in practice, each became increasingly independent.
Transition of Power and Kublai Khan’s Rule
Kublai Khan’s decision to move the empire’s capital from Karakorum in Mongolia to Khanbaliq (modern-day Beijing) in 1264 marked a significant shift. This transition symbolized a pivot toward governing the empire from the heart of its wealthiest and most populous regions, China. However, this decision sparked dissent among traditionalist Mongols who viewed the move as a departure from their homeland. Ariq Böke, Kublai’s brother, opposed this shift and led a rebellion to keep the empire centered in Mongolia. Although Kublai ultimately prevailed in the Toluid Civil War, opposition persisted. Leaders like Kaidu, a grandson of Ögedei Khan and ruler of the Chagatai Khanate, as well as Nayan in 1287, continued to resist Kublai's authority.
Buddhism and Cultural Integration
Under Kublai’s reign, Buddhism flourished as a state-supported religion. He invited the Tibetan lama Drogön Chögyal Phagpa of the Sakya school to promote Buddhism throughout his empire. This marked the second major introduction of Buddhism to the Mongols. To further unify the diverse peoples of the empire, Kublai commissioned Phagpa to create a universal writing system. The resulting 'Phags-pa script, based on Tibetan script and written vertically, was intended to accommodate multiple languages, including Mongolian, Chinese, Tibetan, and Sanskrit. Though the script had limited adoption, it symbolized Kublai’s ambition to forge a cohesive, multicultural empire.
The Yuan Dynasty and Governance
In 1271, Kublai officially declared the establishment of the Yuan dynasty. This new political entity encompassed Mongolia, much of China, and parts of Siberia. Kublai adopted many Chinese administrative practices to govern his realm, creating institutions like the Zhongshu Sheng to oversee civil affairs. However, the Yuan dynasty maintained a hierarchical social structure, with Mongols at the top, followed by western peoples (such as Uighurs and Turks), northern Chinese, and finally southern Chinese at the bottom.
Although the Yuan capital was now in Beijing, Mongolia itself held a special status during the dynasty. The region was transformed into the Lingbei Branch Secretariat, highlighting its importance as the ancestral homeland of the ruling elite.
Decline of the Yuan Dynasty
The Yuan dynasty faced persistent challenges from internal unrest, corruption, and external threats. In 1368, the Ming dynasty, led by Han Chinese forces, captured Khanbaliq, forcing the last Yuan emperor, Toghon Temür, to flee north to Shangdu and later to Yingchang. His death in 1370 marked the end of the Yuan dynasty as a ruling force in China.
The Northern Yuan Dynasty
Following the collapse of the Yuan in China, the Mongols under Toghon Temür’s son, Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara, retreated to the Mongolian steppe. From there, they continued to resist Ming incursions. Mongolia became the stronghold of the Northern Yuan dynasty, which persisted as a successor state to the Mongol Empire, maintaining control over the steppe and asserting its independence until the 17th century.