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The establishment of the Xiongnu empire in the 3rd century BCE marked the beginning of organized statehood in the territory of present-day Mongolia. The Xiongnu, a powerful confederation of nomadic tribes, dominated the steppe and became one of ancient China's most formidable rivals. The ethnic origins of the Xiongnu remain debated, with theories ranging from Mongolic to Turkic or even mixed origins. Cultural artifacts such as yurts on carts, composite bows, and long songs suggest continuity with later Mongolic traditions.

Territory of the Xiongnu. © Anonymous
The Rise of the Xiongnu Empire
The Xiongnu’s rise began under Touman, but it was his son, Modu Chanyu, who united the tribes into a cohesive political and military force around 209 BCE. Modu's leadership transformed the Xiongnu into a dominant empire that extended from Lake Baikal in the north to the Great Wall in the south, and from the Tian Shan mountains in the west to the Greater Khingan range in the east. The Xiongnu mastered mounted warfare and used their mobility and composite bows to great effect.
The Xiongnu expanded their influence by defeating rival nomads like the Yuezhi, driving them westward into Central Asia. By the time of Modu's death in 174 BCE, the Xiongnu were the dominant power on China's northern frontier.
Relations with the Han Dynasty
Early in their history, the Xiongnu clashed with the Han dynasty. In 200 BCE, Modu Chanyu besieged Emperor Gaozu of Han at Baideng, forcing a treaty that ceded northern territories to the Xiongnu and established a tributary relationship. This "marriage alliance" treaty required China to send goods, including silk and grain, as tribute. Despite these agreements, Xiongnu raids into Han territory persisted.
Under Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE), the Han dynasty launched counteroffensives against the Xiongnu. Campaigns led by generals like Wei Qing and Huo Qubing between 129 and 119 BCE inflicted significant losses on the Xiongnu, driving them north of the Gobi Desert and into a period of decline.
Decline and Division
By 48 CE, the Xiongnu empire fractured into northern and southern factions. The Southern Xiongnu submitted to the Han dynasty, becoming a tributary state and serving as auxiliary forces. The Northern Xiongnu, meanwhile, migrated westward and contributed to the formation of later nomadic empires, including the Hunnic Empire in Europe.
The Xianbei, another nomadic group, filled the power vacuum left by the Xiongnu's decline in Mongolia. By the late 1st century CE, Xiongnu dominance in the region had ended.
Legacy and Cultural Significance
The Xiongnu confederation laid the groundwork for later nomadic empires on the Eurasian steppe, influencing both their political structures and military tactics. Archaeological finds such as burial sites at Gol Mod reveal a sophisticated culture with connections to Greco-Roman art and steppe traditions. The Xiongnu’s conflicts with China spurred the construction of the Great Wall and shaped the geopolitics of ancient East Asia.
Their descendants and related tribes continued to shape Central Asian history, blending into successor states and cultures, including the Xianbei and later Turkic and Mongolic peoples. The Xiongnu’s enduring influence is evident in the nomadic traditions and strategic practices of later steppe empires, culminating in the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan.