History of Mongolia
Mongolia during the Xianbei State

After the fragmentation of the Xiongnu in 48 CE, the Xianbei emerged as the dominant power in Mongolia, filling the vacuum left by the Xiongnu's decline. Originating as a northern branch of the Donghu, a proto-Mongolic group mentioned as early as the 4th century BCE, the Xianbei gained prominence through their nomadic warfare and adaptability. Their rise marked the beginning of a new era of Mongolic influence on the steppe.

Map of the Xianbei state. © Khiruge
Rise of the Xianbei
By the 1st century CE, the Xianbei had begun consolidating their power. Under Tanshihuai, who became their leader in 147 CE, the Xianbei unified various tribes and expelled the remaining Xiongnu from key regions like Jungaria. They also pushed the Dingling further north into the Sayan Mountains, solidifying their dominance over the Mongolic peoples in what is now northern Mongolia and Inner Mongolia.
Tanshihuai’s leadership enabled the Xianbei to repel a Han invasion in 167 CE and later to raid northern China in 180 CE. The Xianbei economy blended livestock husbandry with limited farming and handicraft, distinguishing them from the more nomadic Xiongnu. They utilized mounted archers and elected their leaders in a congress of nobility, emphasizing collective decision-making.
Fragmentation and Successor States
The Xianbei state fractured in the 3rd century, giving rise to several smaller tribal states. Among the most significant successors were the Tuoba, a subgroup of the Xianbei, who established control over modern Shanxi Province and later founded the Northern Wei dynasty (386–534 CE). This dynasty combined Xianbei tribal traditions with Chinese administrative practices, becoming a major power in northern China.
The Northern Wei drove back the Rouran, a Mongolic nomadic group rising in the Altai Mountains, and extended their influence into the Tarim Basin. However, the sinicization of the Tuoba under the Northern Wei alienated many traditionalists within the Xianbei and contributed to internal dissent.
Impact on Inner Asia
By the late 3rd century, the Xianbei and their offshoots dominated much of Inner Asia and northern China. They were key players in the chaotic period following the collapse of the Han dynasty, during which nomadic peoples overran China north of the Yangtze River. The Tuoba-controlled Northern Wei became a stabilizing force, reconstructing the Great Wall and defending against incursions from groups like the Rouran.
The legacy of the Xianbei extended through their cultural, military, and administrative influence, shaping the development of later Mongolic and Turkic empires. Their ability to integrate steppe traditions with Chinese governance provided a model for future nomadic states that sought to rule both the steppe and settled societies.