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The Uyghur Khaganate emerged in 745 as a dominant power in Central Asia, replacing the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. The Uyghurs, initially vassals of the Göktürks, capitalized on internal rebellions and regional instability to assert their independence and create a sophisticated empire that flourished for nearly a century.
Foundation and Early Expansion
The Uyghur Khaganate was born from a coalition of Uyghurs, Karluks, and Basmyls that rebelled against the Second Turkic Khaganate in the early 740s. In 744, the Uyghurs and Karluks defeated the Basmyls, seized the Turkic capital at Ötüken, and established their own Khaganate under Qutlugh Bilge Köl Khagan. The Uyghurs then turned against the Karluks, forcing them to migrate westward into Zhetysu, where they overpowered the Türgesh.
The Uyghur capital, Ordu-Baliq, was built on the Orkhon River in 751, reflecting the advanced state of Uyghur culture. Under Khagan Bayanchur, the Uyghurs expanded their influence over the steppe, subjugating various tribes, including the Sekiz Oghuz, Kyrgyz, Karluks, and remnants of the Basmyls.
Relations with the Tang Dynasty
In 755, the Tang dynasty of China was shaken by the An Lushan Rebellion, prompting Emperor Suzong to seek Uyghur assistance. The Uyghurs played a decisive role in retaking the Tang capitals of Chang’an and Luoyang in 757. However, after securing victory, the Uyghur forces looted Luoyang, extracting substantial tribute in silk as compensation. These campaigns cemented a strong but complex relationship between the Uyghurs and the Tang.
Uyghur influence in Tang China extended beyond military alliances. Uyghur princesses married into the Tang imperial family, and Uyghur khagans received honorary titles and lucrative trade privileges, including the exchange of silk for horses.
Cultural and Religious Developments
The Uyghur Khaganate was culturally advanced, with influences from neighboring civilizations such as the Sogdians. They adopted a writing system based on the Sogdian script and calculated astronomical phenomena like solar and lunar eclipses. In 762, under Tengri Bögü Khagan, the Uyghurs officially embraced Manichaeism as their state religion after his encounter with Manichaean priests during a Tang campaign. However, most Uyghurs retained their shamanistic beliefs.
Decline and Fall
The decline of the Uyghur Khaganate began in the late 8th century due to internal strife and external pressures. In 779, Tengri Bögü Khagan was overthrown and killed by his uncle, Tun Bagha Tarkhan, who suppressed Manichaeism and enacted reforms to stabilize the empire. Despite these efforts, the Uyghurs faced growing threats from their neighbors, particularly the Karluks, Tibetans, and the rising power of the Yenisei Kyrgyz.
In 839, the Uyghur Khaganate suffered catastrophic losses due to a severe winter that decimated their livestock, leading to famine and social upheaval. The following year, the Yenisei Kyrgyz invaded from the north with an army of 80,000 horsemen. They sacked the Uyghur capital at Ordu-Baliq, killed Khagan Kürebir, and effectively ended Uyghur dominance in the region.
Aftermath
The collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate marked the end of Turkic hegemony in Mongolia. The Kyrgyz, however, did not consolidate their hold over the region, and the steppes entered a period of fragmentation.
Surviving Uyghur groups migrated southward:
- The Ganzhou Uyghurs established a kingdom in modern Gansu, which later fell to the Tangut people in the 1030s.
- The Qocho Uyghurs founded a Buddhist kingdom near Turpan, which prospered and became a vassal of the Qara Khitai empire in the 12th century. In 1209, the Qocho ruler submitted to Genghis Khan, integrating the Uyghurs into the Mongol Empire as skilled administrators and scribes.
The Uyghurs' cultural and linguistic legacy endured, influencing subsequent Turkic and Mongolic empires. Their script became the basis for the Mongol writing system, and their administrative expertise played a crucial role in the governance of the Mongol Empire.