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The disintegration of the Rouran Khaganate and the rise of the Göktürks marked a pivotal moment in the history of Central Asia. By the mid-6th century, the powerful Rouran were facing internal challenges while their vassals, the Göktürks (Orkhon Turks), emerged as a formidable force. Known as Tujue in Chinese records, the Göktürks had been subject to the Rouran, serving as ironworkers and blacksmiths—a role that ironically became their path to rebellion and ascendancy.
The Blacksmiths’ Rebellion and the Fall of the Rouran
In 552 CE, the Göktürks, under the leadership of Bumin, revolted against their Rouran overlords. The uprising, rooted in the iron mines of the Altai Mountains, is often called the "Blacksmiths' Rebellion." Bumin, having secured control of a key Rouran stronghold, declared himself Khagan and established the Turkic Khaganate. The Göktürks quickly overthrew the Rouran, and by 553 CE, the once-mighty Rouran Khaganate had collapsed, with its remnants either absorbed by other nomadic groups or fleeing westward.
The Rise of the Turkic Khaganate
The Göktürks expanded rapidly, becoming the dominant power in Central Asia. Their empire stretched from the Altai Mountains to the Caspian Sea, uniting various Turkic tribes and subjugating neighboring peoples. Under Bumin and his successors, the Göktürks established trade networks along the Silk Road and wielded significant influence over both China and the Iranian plateau.
In 570 CE, the Göktürks compelled the Northern Qi and Northern Zhou dynasties to pay tribute. However, with the rise of the Sui dynasty in 581, relations soured. The Sui halted tribute payments, leading to a series of conflicts. The Sui’s divide-and-conquer strategy succeeded in splitting the Turkic Khaganate into Eastern and Western Turkic Khaganates by 583 CE.
Decline and Tang Conquest
Despite their initial success, internal power struggles and Chinese diplomacy weakened the Göktürks. In 630, the Tang dynasty decisively defeated the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, capturing its Khagan and asserting control over the Mongolian steppes. The Tang established the Anbei Protectorate to govern the region, installing the Uyghurs as their allies and proxies. Meanwhile, Tang forces extended their influence westward, subjugating the Western Turks and reclaiming dominance over the Silk Road.
The Second Turkic Khaganate
The Göktürks briefly regained their independence in 682 under Kutuluk Khagan and his strategist Tonyukuk, founding the Second Turkic Khaganate. This revival saw the Göktürks reassert control over parts of the steppe and resist Tang influence. However, they faced continuous internal and external challenges.
In the early 8th century, the Göktürks repelled an invasion led by Wu Zetian, the only empress regnant in Chinese history. Yet their fortunes waned due to sustained pressures from the Tang dynasty, the Uyghurs, and other nomadic rivals.
The End of the Göktürk Empire
By 744, a coalition of Tang forces, Uyghurs, and other steppe groups brought the Göktürk Khaganate to an end. The Uyghurs emerged as the dominant power in the region, founding the Uyghur Khaganate, while China extended its influence deeper into Central Asia.
Legacy
The Göktürks played a crucial role in shaping the political and cultural landscape of the steppe. They were the first Turkic group to establish a unified empire and popularized the title Khagan, which would be adopted by future steppe rulers. Their use of the Old Turkic script, as seen in the inscriptions of the Kul Tigin Monument, marked the beginning of Turkic written tradition.
The fall of the Göktürks paved the way for new powers, including the Uyghurs and the later Mongolic empires, but their legacy endured in the Turkic cultural and political identity that influenced much of Central Asia and beyond.