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History of Mongolia

Mongol Empire

© Anonymous

History of Mongolia

Mongol Empire

1206 Jan 1 - 1294
Mongolia
Mongol Empire
Mongol Conquest of Europe. © Anonymous

Video

As Genghis Khan rose to power, the newly unified Mongol state quickly transformed into a formidable force that would reshape the history of the 13th and 14th centuries. The Mongol Empire, under Genghis Khan and his immediate successors, spanned nearly all of Asia and extended into European Russia, with its armies venturing as far as Central Europe and Southeast Asia.


Consolidating Power and Military Reform

After uniting the Mongol tribes, Genghis Khan abolished the old tribal divisions and introduced a revolutionary administrative and military system. The entire population was organized into a hierarchy of units, starting with the arbatu (10 warriors), which formed larger units of 100 (zagutu), 1,000 (mingat), and 10,000 (tumetu or tumen). This decimal system, inherited from earlier nomadic empires like the Xiongnu, ensured loyalty and efficiency. With an estimated population of 750,000, Mongolia could muster approximately 95,000 cavalrymen, a disciplined and mobile force unlike any other.


Early Expansion and the Subjugation of Neighbors

The newly unified state attracted nearby powers. By 1207, several neighboring peoples, including the Uighurs, Taiga tribes of the Yenisey River, and the Karluk kingdom, had joined the Mongol sphere of influence. However, Mongolia’s independence was constantly threatened by its powerful southeastern neighbor, the Jin dynasty, which had long manipulated Mongolic tribes against each other to maintain dominance.


To solidify his nation's independence, Genghis Khan began preparing for war with the Jin. First, he targeted the Tangut-led Western Xia, a kingdom that controlled vital trade routes. The Mongols swiftly overran their defenses, forcing the Western Xia to pledge vassalage.


Campaign Against the Jin Dynasty

In 1211, Genghis Khan launched a full-scale invasion of the Jin dynasty. With over 90,000 cavalrymen, the Mongols bypassed the Great Wall, invaded Shanxi and Shandong provinces, and approached the Yellow River. The Jin emperor, overwhelmed by the ferocity of the Mongols, surrendered in 1214, offering tributes of gold, silver, and even a princess. However, the Jin continued their resistance, prompting Genghis Khan to assign his general, Mukhulai, to oversee their complete subjugation.


The Conquest of Qara Khitai and the Fall of Kuchlug

The Qara Khitai (Western Liao) was the next to fall. In 1218, the Mongol general Jebe defeated Kuchlug, the Gur-Khan of Qara Khitai. Kuchlug’s unpopularity among his Muslim subjects, due to his religious persecution, made the conquest swift. This victory expanded the Mongol Empire’s reach into Central Asia.


War with the Khwarezm Empire

Genghis Khan sought to establish peaceful trade relations with the Khwarezm Empire, a dominant power in Central Asia. However, the Khwarezm ruler, Shah Muhammad, viewed Genghis Khan’s overtures as a threat. The execution of 450 Mongol envoys and merchants in 1218 ignited a war.


In 1219, Genghis Khan unleashed his forces on the Khwarezm Empire. Despite being vastly outnumbered, the Mongols used superior strategy and mobility to devastate major cities such as Otrar, Bukhara, Merv, and Samarkand. The Shah fled, but his armies were systematically destroyed. Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu, the Shah’s son, mounted a valiant resistance but was ultimately defeated in 1221, fleeing to the Indus River.


Meanwhile, the Mongol generals Jebe and Subedei pursued campaigns across northern Iran, Iraq, and the Caucasus. In 1223, they defeated a coalition of Kipchak and Rus forces at the Battle of Kalka River, demonstrating the far-reaching power of the Mongol army.


The Final Years of Genghis Khan

In his later years, Genghis Khan turned his attention back to the Tangut-led Western Xia, which had refused to support his campaigns in the west. In 1226, he launched a punitive invasion. The Mongols captured the Tangut capital of Zhongxing (modern Yinchuan) and annihilated the Western Xia dynasty by March 1227.


Genghis Khan’s relentless campaigns consolidated the Mongol Empire as a unified and dominant force. By the time of his death in August 1227, after a 16-year series of conquests, the Mongol Empire stretched from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea. He was buried in secrecy at a site in the Khentii Mountains, leaving a legacy of unparalleled military achievement and an empire poised for further expansion under his successors.

Page Last Updated: 12/30/2024

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