The rise of Lithuanian nationalism in the 19th century emerged from the aftermath of the partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the ensuing period of Russian domination. Lithuanian identity evolved through cultural resistance, intellectual revival, and peasant empowerment, breaking away from prior associations with Polish culture and establishing Lithuanian language and history as the cornerstone of national consciousness.
Early Foundations and Key Influences
The Polish poet Adam Mickiewicz, emotionally tied to Lithuanian landscapes, inspired early nationalist thought, while Simonas Daukantas sought to revive pre-Commonwealth traditions, advocating for Lithuanian-language historical narratives. Daukantas, along with Teodor Narbutt, emphasized Lithuania’s deep cultural roots and its linguistic ties to Sanskrit, offering arguments for the cultural antiquity of the Lithuanian people.
Uprisings and Shifting Loyalties
The November Uprising (1830–31) and January Uprising (1863–64) against Russian rule were pivotal moments, reflecting growing discontent with Russian repression. These revolts failed but laid the groundwork for a shift in Lithuanian identity, moving away from Polish-led political movements toward a language-based Lithuanian nationalism. Peasants, newly emancipated after 1861, became the custodians of the Lithuanian language, especially as cities increasingly adopted Polish or Russian in daily life.
Cultural Revival and Press Ban
The Lithuanian press ban (1864–1904), imposed by Russian authorities to enforce Russification, banned the use of the Latin alphabet in favor of Cyrillic. In defiance, Lithuanians smuggled books and periodicals printed abroad, particularly from East Prussia. Figures like Bishop Motiejus Valančius led efforts to resist Russification by promoting Lithuanian education and clandestine publishing efforts.
Book Smuggling
After the January Uprising of 1863, the Russian authorities implemented strict Russification policies, banning the Lithuanian language in public education and mandating the use of Cyrillic script in all publications. In defiance, Lithuanians organized an extensive underground network to smuggle books printed in the Latin alphabet, mainly from East Prussia and as far away as the United States. These smugglers risked imprisonment, exile, and even death, transporting prohibited texts across borders and distributing them in secret.
Jurgis Bielinis, known as the "King of the Book Smugglers," was one of the key figures in this operation, coordinating deliveries from Prussia into Lithuania. Motiejus Valančius, a Catholic bishop, played a vital role by encouraging priests and communities to distribute religious texts, ensuring the preservation of both faith and language. Other smugglers, like Kazys Ūdra and Juozas Masiulis, risked arrest and exile to maintain the flow of banned books. Smugglers concealed literature in carts, barrels, or personal clothing, constantly evading Russian patrols.
Emergence of Lithuanian National Leaders
The late 19th century saw influential activists like Jonas Basanavičius and Vincas Kudirka spearheading the nationalist movement. Basanavičius, influenced by the Czech National Revival, founded the newspaper Aušra (The Dawn) in 1883, promoting Lithuanian cultural pride. Kudirka contributed through poetry and journalism, penning the Lithuanian national anthem, Tautiška giesmė.
Political Activism and the Great Seimas of Vilnius
During the 1905 Russian Revolution, Lithuanian activists convened the Great Seimas of Vilnius, demanding autonomy for Lithuania within the Russian Empire. Though the Tsar granted limited concessions, including the restoration of Lithuanian language use, full autonomy remained elusive.
The revival solidified by the early 20th century—rooted in language, literature, and cultural pride—provided the foundation for Lithuania’s eventual push for independence in 1918.