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After the dissolution of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795, most of Lithuania fell under Russian control, with Vilnius becoming part of the Vilna Governorate. Early in the 19th century, there were some hopes for a degree of recognition or autonomy, but these never materialized under the Russian Empire.
Modern Lithuania with the former Russian Empire's administrative divisions (governorates) shown (1867–1914). © Knutux
In 1803, Tsar Alexander I reopened and expanded the Jesuit academy into the imperial Vilnius University, which became the largest university in the empire, overseen by Prince Adam Czartoryski. However, Lithuanian hopes of liberation were briefly reignited during Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812, with many Lithuanians supporting the French. The region taken by Prussia during the third partition was later incorporated into the Duchy of Warsaw (1807–1815) and eventually became part of the Russian-controlled Kingdom of Poland (Congress Poland).
Resistance to Russian rule persisted in Lithuania, culminating in two major uprisings: the November Uprising (1830–1831) and the January Uprising (1863–1864). Both revolts, led jointly by Poles and Lithuanians, sought to restore independence, but both were brutally suppressed. After the November Uprising, Tsar Nicholas I intensified Russification efforts, closing the University of Vilnius and curtailing Polish cultural activities. Following the January Uprising, repression deepened, with increased military presence and harsher restrictions on cultural expression.
In 1840, the Statutes of Lithuania—the legal codes of the former Grand Duchy—were formally abolished, erasing any legal distinction for the region within the empire. Additionally, the Uniate Church (prevalent in Belarusian parts of the Grand Duchy) was forcibly merged with the Russian Orthodox Church in 1839.
Despite these suppressions, Lithuanian identity persisted through cultural and national movements, laying the groundwork for Lithuanian nationalism. By the mid-19th century, the gradual abolition of serfdom (1861) across the Russian Empire began reshaping Lithuanian society, helping forge new social dynamics that would later fuel the national awakening. While Lithuanian-language education and culture were stifled, figures like Simonas Daukantas emerged, promoting Lithuanian history and language, which became critical in building a national consciousness that would ultimately lead to Lithuania’s quest for independence in the 20th century.