Following the turbulent period after Mindaugas's death, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania stabilized under Traidenis, who reigned from 1269 to 1282. Traidenis strengthened Lithuania’s hold over Black Ruthenia, secured victories against the Livonian Order—notably at the Battles of Karuse (1270) and Aizkraukle (1279)—and helped defend the Yotvingians against the Teutonic Knights. However, his death left a leadership void, and Lithuania entered a brief period of uncertainty, as the other Baltic tribes were conquered by the German Orders, leaving Lithuania to face the crusaders alone.
Between 1282 and 1295, little is known about Lithuania's rulers, but by 1295, Vytenis assumed power, marking the beginning of the Gediminid dynasty, which would rule for more than a century. Vytenis expanded Lithuania's influence by securing key Ruthenian lands such as Pinsk and Turov, and strengthened ties with Riga, using it as a base for both military and trade efforts. He also developed defensive fortifications along the Nemunas River, preparing for further conflict with the Teutonic Knights.
The reign of Gediminas (beginning around 1316) marked the height of Lithuania’s expansion, evolving into a powerful state stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea. Gediminas captured Kiev in 1321, solidified control over western Ruthenian principalities, and moved the capital to Vilnius. He built a centralized government while using diplomacy to balance relations with both Byzantine and Latin Christianity. Although Gediminas explored conversion to Catholicism to end conflict with the Teutonic Knights, internal resistance from Samogitians and Orthodox factions thwarted these efforts. Gediminas also established a Polish alliance by marrying his daughter to Casimir III of Poland in 1325, signaling Lithuania’s growing prestige.
Expansion of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, 13th–15th centuries. © Anonymous
Under Gediminas and his successors—Algirdas and Kęstutis—Lithuania continued to resist the Teutonic Knights while expanding into the east and south, battling the Mongols and incorporating territories such as Smolensk. In 1362, Lithuania’s forces secured a major victory over the Golden Horde at the Battle of Blue Waters (extending Lithuanian control deep into former Mongol territories) and captured Kiev afterwards.
By the late 14th century, Lithuania had grown into one of the largest multi-ethnic empire in Europe. It remained a pagan empire, holding off crusader orders and Mongol forces while building an expansive multi-ethnic state that would continue to influence Eastern European politics for generations.