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The early history of Lithuania is rooted in the ancient Baltic tribes, a branch of Indo-European-speaking peoples that began forming around the 2nd millennium BCE. These tribes spread across Eastern Europe, from the Baltic Sea to areas near modern Moscow. The main divisions were the West Baltic Old Prussians and Yotvingians, and the East Baltic Lithuanians and Latvians. Over time, some tribes—like the Samogitians, Semigallians, and Curonians—merged into Lithuanian and Latvian identities, while others, such as the Old Prussians, were conquered or assimilated by the Teutonic Order.
Baltic tribes around 1200, in the neighbourhood about to face the Teutonic Knights’ conversion and conquests; note that Baltic territory extended far inland. © Marija Gimbutas
Although the Baltic tribes maintained cultural isolation, they connected to broader Mediterranean civilizations through the Amber Road. Baltic amber, often called "Baltic Gold," was highly prized for jewelry and religious artifacts. This trade route linked the Baltic coast with the Roman Empire and other Mediterranean societies, fostering occasional exchanges despite the remoteness of the region. Roman writers recorded these distant lands; Tacitus, around 97 CE, mentioned the Aesti people near the southeastern Baltic coast, and Ptolemy identified the Galindians and Yotvingians in the 2nd century CE.
By the 9th–10th centuries, distinct Lithuanian tribes had emerged, centered in regions like Samogitia and Aukštaitija, each with unique burial customs—Samogitia known for skeletal burials, and Aukštaitija for cremations. Pagan traditions remained deeply rooted, with rulers such as Grand Dukes Algirdas and Kęstutis still cremated until Christianization.
The Lithuanian and Latvian languages began to diverge by the 7th century, but Lithuanian retained many archaic Indo-European features. Lithuania first appeared in written records in 1009 CE, when the Annals of Quedlinburg described the missionary Bruno of Querfurt baptizing a local ruler, “King Nethimer.” This moment marked Lithuania’s earliest known entry into recorded European history.