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Long before the arrival of the German crusading orders, the Baltic coast had already been shaped by centuries of conflict. From the 9th to 11th centuries, Viking raids ravaged the coasts, and kingdoms like Denmark occasionally demanded tribute from Baltic tribes. Ruthenian princes from Kievan Rus' also invaded Lithuanian lands, further complicating regional dynamics. However, as Viking influence declined, new threats emerged from the West, with the Christian kingdoms of Scandinavia and the Holy Roman Empire looking to convert and subdue the Baltic peoples.
The Catholic Church viewed the Baltic tribes as a pagan barrier blocking the spread of Christianity. While earlier attempts at peaceful conversion—such as those led by missionaries like Meinhard—saw limited success, the Church soon turned to military force. In 1195, Pope Celestine III officially called for a crusade against the pagan tribes. This was reaffirmed by Pope Innocent III, who equated the Northern Crusades with the Crusades to the Holy Land, ensuring that knights who fought in these campaigns earned spiritual rewards.
By the early 1200s, German merchants and missionaries followed old Viking trade routes into Livonia, paving the way for crusaders. In 1202, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword were established, tasked with conquering and Christianizing Baltic tribes (including the Livonians, Curonians, and Semigallians) and, more importantly, to protect German trade and secure German control over commerce. The Livonian Order expanded aggressively, but it soon encountered resistance from Lithuanian and Samogitian warriors.
State of the Teutonic Order in 1260. © S. Bollman
In 1236, the crusaders launched a campaign into Samogitia. However, at the Battle of Saule, a combined force of Samogitians and Semigallians decisively defeated the Livonian Order, killing its master, Volkwin. The battle marked the first large-scale victory for Baltic pagans and sparked revolts among conquered tribes, temporarily halting Christian expansion. The Livonian Order merged with the Teutonic Knights in 1237, shifting their strategy but intensifying pressure on Lithuania.
The growing threat from the German orders forced the Lithuanian tribes to consolidate. Leaders like Mindaugas emerged during this period of conflict, uniting various Baltic groups under a single authority. As the Grand Duchy of Lithuania began to take shape, it faced relentless attacks from both the Livonian and Teutonic Orders. Recognizing the strategic importance of religion, Mindaugas converted to Christianity and was crowned King of Lithuania in 1253, hoping to secure peace with the crusaders.
While the Teutonic and Livonian Orders subdued most other Baltic tribes by the end of the 13th century, Samogitia remained a stronghold of pagan resistance. The Teutonic Knights launched continuous campaigns from their base in Prussia, hoping to link their territories through Lithuania. However, Lithuanian rulers—first through temporary alliances and later through organized leadership—repelled these incursions. Victories like the Battle of Durbe in 1260 further strengthened Lithuanian resolve and encouraged rebellions among other Baltic tribes under German control.
Even as neighboring tribes like the Curonians, Semigallians, and Yotvingians fell to the crusaders, Lithuania held firm, becoming the last pagan stronghold in Europe. Vytenis, who assumed power in 1295, capitalized on the weakened state of the German orders. Over the next two decades, Lithuania grew stronger, expanding its influence into Ruthenian lands while fending off attacks from both the Teutonic and Livonian forces.