After the Great Northern War (1700–1721), Russia had already taken control of Livonia, encompassing northern Latvia and the city of Riga. However, further territorial changes in the 18th century came with the decline of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, culminating in its partition. These events brought all Latvian-inhabited territories under Russian rule, reshaping the political and cultural landscape of the region.
In 1772, the First Partition of Poland transferred the Inflanty Voivodeship (Latgale) to Russia. Initially part of the Mogilev Governorate, Latgale was reassigned to the Vitebsk Governorate in 1802. This administrative separation deepened the cultural and linguistic divide between Latgalians and other ethnic Latvians. While northern Latvia (Vidzeme), now known as the Governorate of Livonia, maintained its Lutheran traditions, Latgale became increasingly influenced by the Orthodox Slavic sphere, drifting away from the Lutheranism that prevailed in other parts of Latvia.
In 1795, the Third Partition of Poland marked the annexation of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia by Russia, eliminating the last vestiges of Polish influence over Latvian territory. Russia formally established the Courland Governorate, but the German Baltic nobility retained significant autonomy. They continued to dominate landownership, education, and administration, ensuring the region’s social structure remained largely intact for the next century.
By 1795, Russia had unified all Latvian-inhabited regions under its empire: Vidzeme (Livonia) in the north, Latgale in the east, and Courland in the west. However, these regions followed distinct trajectories. In Livonia and Courland, the German elite retained control over governance, while Latgale’s integration into Russian Orthodox systems fostered cultural differences that distanced it from the rest of Latvia. These internal divisions—Lutheranism in the north and west, Orthodoxy in the east—shaped Latvia’s cultural identity and political development for years to come.