In 1600, tensions between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden erupted into open conflict. The roots of the war lay in a dynastic struggle. Sigismund III Vasa, once king of both Sweden and Poland, had been dethroned by his uncle, Charles IX, in 1599. Although exiled to Poland, Sigismund refused to abandon his claim to the Swedish throne. Meanwhile, both Poland-Lithuania and Sweden sought control over Livonia and Estonia, key regions that provided access to vital Baltic trade routes.
Swedish forces quickly invaded Livonia (modern-day northern Latvia and southern Estonia) in 1600, hoping to secure their hold over the region. Polish forces responded under the command of Jan Karol Chodkiewicz, an experienced military leader. The conflict saw a series of skirmishes and sieges, with both sides struggling to maintain control over fortresses and trade hubs.
Kircholm and the Shift in Momentum (1601–1605)
The early years of the war were marked by Swedish advances into Livonia, but the Commonwealth’s army, led by Chodkiewicz, managed to retake key strongholds. In 1605, the two armies met near Kircholm, close to Salaspils in modern Latvia. Outnumbered nearly 3 to 1, Chodkiewicz’s forces delivered a stunning victory over the Swedes. The Battle of Kircholm became one of the most decisive battles of the war, with the Commonwealth cavalry crushing the Swedish army in a swift and bloody encounter. Swedish ambitions were temporarily halted, and Poland-Lithuania regained ground in Livonia.
However, this victory was not enough to end the war. Poland-Lithuania was overstretched, fighting on multiple fronts, including conflicts with Russia. The Commonwealth's nobility, more focused on internal politics, lacked the will to sustain a long campaign against Sweden. The Swedes regrouped, and their ambitions for control over Riga and Livonia remained alive.
The Capture of Riga and Swedish Resurgence (1621)
In 1621, the war entered a new phase under Gustavus Adolphus, the new Swedish king, who reinvigorated the campaign. Sweden launched a major offensive and captured Riga, the largest and most important city in Livonia. The fall of Riga marked a turning point, as the city’s strategic location on the Daugava River gave Sweden a key trading port and strengthened its influence in the Baltic region.
The capture of Riga was a severe blow to Poland-Lithuania. Although the Commonwealth retained southern Livonia (Latgale), Sweden now controlled northern Latvia and much of Estonia, laying the foundations for what would become Swedish Livonia. Riga, which had prospered under Polish rule, was now integrated into Sweden’s growing empire.
Final Years and the Treaty of Altmark (1629)
The fighting dragged on throughout the 1620s, with neither side able to secure a decisive victory. Both Sweden and Poland-Lithuania were exhausted by the prolonged conflict. Sweden’s involvement in the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) complicated its campaign in Livonia, while Poland-Lithuania faced ongoing conflicts with Russia and internal political instability.
In 1629, the war ended with the Treaty of Altmark, which confirmed Sweden’s control over northern Livonia, including Riga. Poland-Lithuania retained control of southern Livonia (Latgale) and the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, which remained a vassal of the Commonwealth.
Impact on Latvia
The Polish–Swedish War shaped the political landscape of Latvia for decades. With the capture of Riga, Sweden established dominance over northern Latvia and parts of Estonia, forming Swedish Livonia. Under Swedish rule, Riga became an important trading hub, further integrating Latvia into the Baltic trade network. However, the local Latvian population remained under foreign rule, first by Poland-Lithuania and now by Sweden.
Although Sweden’s governance introduced some administrative reforms and promoted Lutheranism, life for the Latvian peasantry remained difficult, with social stratification and serfdom still in place. The division of Latvian territory between Sweden in the north and Poland-Lithuania in the south (Latgale) would persist until the Great Northern War in the early 18th century, when Russia emerged as the dominant power in the Baltic.