Following Napoleon’s failed invasion of Russia in 1812, Latvia’s trajectory under Russian rule entered a new phase, marked by reforms aimed at the gradual emancipation of peasants and significant social changes. These reforms took place in the Governorates of Livonia, Courland, and Latgale, reshaping the relationship between landowners and the Latvian peasantry. However, the process was complex and often incomplete, as peasants gained personal freedom but not ownership of land, perpetuating economic dependence on the German nobility for several more decades.
Emancipation Begins: The Early Reforms in Livonia and Courland (1804–1819)
The first stirrings of reform were triggered by discontent within the peasantry. In 1802, the Kauguri rebellion shook the Livonian Governorate, prompting Russian authorities to implement new laws. In 1804, legislation aimed to improve conditions for peasants, establishing that they could no longer be sold independently from the land. However, the reforms did not grant peasants full freedom or land ownership. German nobles still retained significant power, and the labor obligations of peasants—known as socage (forced labor)—were only minimally reduced. In 1809, under pressure from the nobility, parts of these reforms were reversed, restoring some privileges to the landowners.
More significant reforms came with Courland’s emancipation law, passed by the Courland Landtag in 1817 and proclaimed the following year in Jelgava (Mitau), in the presence of Czar Alexander I. The law abolished serfdom and provided personal freedom to peasants, but it did not grant them ownership of the land they worked. Instead, they were required to lease land from the nobility, ensuring continued economic dependence. This system remained in place until the 1860s.
Expansion of Emancipation: Reforms in Livonia (1820) and Latgale (1861)
Inspired by the Courland model, Livonia (Vidzeme) enacted similar reforms in 1819, with emancipation becoming law in early 1820. As in Courland, peasants were granted personal freedom but no access to land ownership. Until the 1830s, they also needed permission from landowners to move to towns or other governorates, limiting their mobility and economic opportunities.
The situation in Latgale—part of the Vitebsk Governorate—followed a different timeline. Since Latgale was integrated into the broader Russian Empire, serfdom persisted until the empire-wide emancipation reform of 1861. Even after gaining freedom, Latgalian peasants were required to continue performing socage and paying rent until a new law in 1863 abolished these obligations.
Further Reforms and the Rise of a Latvian Landowning Class (1830s–1860s)
While the early emancipation laws freed peasants from personal bondage, they remained tied to the landowners’ estates through leasing agreements. However, reforms in the mid-19th century began to open opportunities for Latvian farmers to purchase land. The Livonian Agrarian Law of 1849, made permanent in 1860, allowed peasants to buy their farms from German landowners. The introduction of credit unions in 1864 further enabled farmers to access loans, accelerating the transfer of land ownership. By the start of World War I, nearly 99% of farms in Courland and 90% in Livonia had been purchased by Latvian farmers, creating a new class of landowning Latvian peasants.
The gradual acquisition of land and rising prosperity allowed many Latvian families to send their children to schools and pursue higher education, contributing to the emergence of a Latvian national consciousness in the following decades.
Emigration to Siberia and Beyond
Despite these opportunities, many peasants faced economic challenges or were reluctant to purchase land. In the 1870s and 1880s, thousands of Latvian families took advantage of Russian policies offering free land in Siberia. By the outbreak of World War I, nearly 200,000 Latvians had relocated to Siberian farming colonies, establishing new communities far from their homeland.