The Stone Age in present-day Latvia spans from the end of the Ice Age to around 1800 BCE, laying the foundation for human settlement in the region. As the glaciers receded 14,000–12,000 years ago, the earliest human settlers, following reindeer herds, arrived during the late Paleolithic period (around 12,000–11,000 years ago). Evidence of their presence, such as tools from the Swiderian culture, has been found near Salaspils, indicating a nomadic lifestyle near rivers and the shores of the Baltic Ice Lake, with the coastline then extending further inland.

During the Mesolithic period (9000–5400 BCE), as the climate warmed, hunter-gatherer communities became more permanent. Settlements were often near rivers and lakes, such as the 25 sites discovered around Lake Lubāns. These inhabitants belonged to the Kunda culture and crafted tools from flint, antler, bone, and wood, reflecting a growing sophistication in toolmaking.

The Neolithic period (5400–1800 BCE) saw significant cultural changes. Early Neolithic groups began practicing animal husbandry, agriculture, and pottery-making. Around 4100 BCE, the Narva culture emerged, with populations linked to Finnic ancestors, possibly forebears of the Livonians. Later, around 2900 BCE, the arrival of the Corded Ware culture marked the settlement of Baltic tribes, ancestors of the Latvians, who have continuously inhabited the region since then. This gradual transition through different Stone Age cultures established the cultural and demographic roots of modern Latvia.

The Bronze Age in present-day Latvia, spanning roughly from 1800 to 500 BCE, marked the transition from stone tools to metalwork and the rise of more complex social structures. Though bronze was not locally produced, it was acquired through trade networks, particularly with regions around the Baltic Sea. Tools, ornaments, and weapons made from bronze became increasingly common, indicating growing wealth and status distinctions among communities.

Settlements during this time were often located near rivers, lakes, or fertile areas, with evidence of farming, animal husbandry, and fishing becoming more prominent. Burial practices evolved, with individuals being buried in stone cists or under burial mounds, suggesting the emergence of ritual traditions and hierarchical social structures. 

Archaeological findings, such as metal objects and ceramics, suggest strong trade links with Scandinavian and Central European cultures. This period also saw the continued presence of Baltic tribes, consolidating the cultural identity that would evolve into the early ancestors of the Latvians. By the end of the Bronze Age, Latvian territory had established itself as a crossroads between northern and central European cultures, laying the groundwork for later Iron Age developments.

The Iron Age in present-day Latvia, spanning from 500 BCE to 1200 CE, saw major advancements in agriculture, trade, and the formation of distinct ethnic groups. The early Iron Age (500 BCE – 1st century BCE) introduced iron tools, significantly improving farming practices and making agriculture the dominant economic activity. Bronze, obtained through trade, continued to be used for decorative ornaments.

During the Middle Iron Age (400–800 CE), regional identities began to solidify, with Baltic tribes evolving into distinct groups like the Curonians, Semigallians, Latgalians, and Selonians, while Finnic peoples became Livonians and Vends. Local chiefdoms emerged, marking a shift toward more organized societies.

The Latgalians in the context of the other Baltic tribes, ca. 1200 CE, the Eastern Balts are shown in brown and the Western Balts are shown in green (boundaries are approximate). Baltic territory was extensive inland. © Marija Gimbutas

Latvia's location made it an essential link in international trade networks, especially along the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, which connected Scandinavia to Byzantium via the Daugava River. Latvian amber, highly prized across Europe, reached distant markets in Greece and the Roman Empire via the Amber Road, contributing to Latvia’s reputation as "Dzintarzeme" or Amberland.

From 650 to 850 CE, a Scandinavian colony near Grobiņa, likely established by settlers from Gotland, played a role in regional dynamics, with Curonians paying tribute to Swedish kings according to historical accounts. 

In the Late Iron Age (800–1200 CE), agriculture advanced with the adoption of the three-field system and rye cultivation. Craftsmanship improved with the introduction of the potter’s wheel and advanced metalworking techniques. Foreign coins from Arab, Western European, and Anglo-Saxon sources highlight the region’s growing involvement in trade. To protect their territory, the locals built networks of wooden hill-forts, establishing a framework for defense and governance that persisted into the medieval era.

By the 10th century, the Baltic tribes in present-day Latvia had begun forming early states and regional chiefdoms. These included the Curonians, Latgalians, Selonians, Semigallians, and the Finnic Livonians, each with distinct cultural traits. The most politically advanced were the Latgalians, whose principal polity, Jersika, was governed by Orthodox Christian rulers tied to the Rurik dynasty. The last known ruler of Jersika, King Visvaldis, is mentioned in the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia. When Visvaldis divided his territory in 1211, a portion was named "Lettia," marking one of the earliest mentions of the name later associated with Latvia.

The Curonians, whose influence extended into northern Lithuania and the Curonian Spit, were known for seafaring raids and coastal looting, earning them a reputation as “Baltic Vikings.” Meanwhile, the Selonians and Semigallians thrived as skilled farmers and fiercely resisted German invaders, with chiefs like Viestards leading opposition efforts.

The Livonians, living along the Gulf of Riga, relied on fishing and trade. Their interactions with German merchants gave the region its early German name, Livland. At the time of the German arrival in the late 12th century, Latvia was home to around 135,000 Baltic inhabitants and 20,000 Livonians, marking the peak of these tribal societies before foreign influence began to reshape the region.

The Principality of Jersika was a medieval Latgalian state located in eastern Latvia, active from at least the 12th century until 1239. It was one of the largest pre-crusade polities in the region, centered around a hill fort near the present-day Līvāni Municipality, southeast of Riga. The principality occupied areas now known as Latgale and Vidzeme, bordering Tālava, Koknese, Selonia, Polotsk, and Lithuania.

Estimated territories under Jersika rule. © Garais

Jersika was a part of the broader trade network along the Daugava River, linked to the route from the Varangians to the Greeks. Initially, it maintained connections with the Principality of Polotsk, with rulers adopting Eastern Orthodoxy. The principality is first mentioned in the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia in 1203, when its ruler, Visvaldis, allied with Lithuanians to raid the newly founded city of Riga.

In 1209, Jersika was conquered by Bishop Albert of Riga and the Livonian Brothers of the Sword. Visvaldis surrendered, and his kingdom was partitioned. He retained parts of Jersika as a fief, but lost territories like Autīne and Cesvaine. His feudal charter, in which he is titled "king of Jersika" (rex de Gercike), is the oldest surviving document of its kind in Latvia.

The principality’s decline continued as Polotsk abandoned its tributary claims over Jersika in favor of Bishop Albert in 1212. In 1214, German forces attacked and plundered Jersika’s castle. After Visvaldis’ death in 1239, the remaining territory passed to the Livonian Order, though it faced further claims from Lithuania and Novgorod. By this time, Russian chronicles referred to the region as "Lotigola," linking it to the Latgale area, which continued to be contested well into the 13th century.

By the end of the 12th century, Latvia was increasingly visited by merchants from Western Europe, particularly Germans, traveling along the Daugava River to trade with Kievan Rus'. Many of these traders brought Christian missionaries to convert the Baltic and Finnic peoples, including the Livonians, who lived along the river’s shores. However, the locals resisted these efforts, especially the rite of baptism, prompting Pope Celestine III in 1195 to call for a crusade to forcibly convert the pagans.

In the early 1180s, Saint Meinhard began preaching among the Livonians, but his mission failed to gain widespread acceptance. His successor, Bishop Berthold of Hanover, also struggled to convert the population and was killed by Livonians in 1198. In 1199, Berthold’s replacement, Bishop Albert of Riga, arrived with the backing of military reinforcements. Albert spent nearly 30 years leading campaigns to subjugate the local tribes, establishing German dominance in the region. In 1201, he founded the city of Riga, which grew into a major Baltic port and became the center of German power.

To support the conquest, the Order of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword was established in 1202. The crusaders quickly subdued the Livonians by 1207, converting them and placing their territory under German control. At the same time, Terra Mariana, a Christian state encompassing modern Latvia and Estonia, was declared under the direct authority of the Pope. By 1214, most of the Latgalian territories, including the Principality of Jersika, had also been conquered. Jersika’s ruler, Visvaldis, was defeated and forced to accept German rule, retaining only part of his land as a vassal.

Medieval Livonia. © Termer

Over the next decades, the crusaders systematically expanded their conquests. By 1224, the Latgalian principalities of Tālava and Adzele were partitioned between the Bishop of Riga and the Brothers of the Sword. Meanwhile, the Curonians and Semigallians fiercely resisted German incursions. The Curonians and the Semigallians, led by chiefs like Viestards, allied with Lithuanians to oppose the crusaders. 

In 1236, the crusaders suffered a catastrophic defeat at the hands of Samogitians and Semigallians at the Battle of Saule. The loss nearly annihilated the Brothers of the Sword, forcing them to merge with the more powerful Teutonic Order, becoming the Livonian Order in 1237. Despite their setbacks, the crusaders resumed their campaigns. By 1245, much of Courland had been conquered, with fortresses such as Kuldīga serving as centers of German control.

The Semigallians continued their resistance longer than most tribes. In 1279, under Duke Nameisis, they launched a major rebellion and allied with Lithuanian forces to defeat the Livonian Order at the Battle of Aizkraukle. The Semigallians even attempted to capture Riga in 1280, though they were ultimately unsuccessful. German forces responded by besieging Turaida Castle and building new strongholds like Heiligenberg to tighten their grip. The final Semigallian hillforts fell in 1289–1290, and many Semigallian warriors fled to Lithuania, marking the end of their independence.

By the close of the 13th century, all of the major Baltic tribes in Latvia—Livonians, Latgalians, Selonians, Curonians, and Semigallians—had been conquered. German settlers imposed new political and economic structures, integrating the region into the broader Christian world under German rule. The conquest of Latvia was part of the larger Northern Crusades, which aimed to Christianize the pagan peoples around the Baltic Sea. Although the campaigns brought Christianity and trade networks to the region, they also marked the end of the autonomous tribal societies and the beginning of centuries of German dominance in Latvia

The founding of Riga in 1201 was a key moment in the Northern Crusades, driven by Bishop Albert of Riga to establish German dominance in the Baltic region. Albert arrived in Livonia in 1200 with 23 ships and 500 Westphalian crusaders, determined to convert the local tribes and secure trade routes. He quickly relocated the bishopric from Ikšķile to Riga, forcing the local elders to accept the move.

Albert ensured Riga’s commercial success by obtaining papal decrees that required all German merchants trading in the Baltic to pass through Riga. This strategic control over trade helped the city grow rapidly. In 1211, Riga minted its first coins, signaling its emergence as an economic hub, and Albert laid the cornerstone for Riga Cathedral (Dom), further solidifying the city’s religious and political importance.

Though the region remained unstable, with local tribes attempting but failing to reclaim Riga, Albert’s campaigns against Polotsk in 1212 secured German dominance along the Daugava River. Polotsk ceded control over Koknese and Jersika, ending their influence over the Livonian tribes and ensuring Riga’s authority in the region. Today, Riga's founding in 1201 is commemorated as a pivotal moment, shaped by later German narratives portraying Albert as a "bringer of culture" who introduced Christianity and civilization to pagan Livonia.

Following the Northern Crusades, the Livonian Confederation emerged in 1228 as a loosely organized alliance of five entities: the Livonian Order, Archbishopric of Riga, and the bishoprics of Dorpat, Ösel-Wiek, and Courland. It encompassed present-day Latvia and Estonia, serving as both a defensive alliance to maintain German dominance and as a bulwark of Roman Catholicism against the expanding influence of Russian Orthodoxy. Although nominally divided between the church and the military order, the Livonian Order controlled much of the land, with power concentrated in the hands of German elites.

Economically, the Confederation flourished through trade with the Hanseatic League. Its ports, such as Riga, facilitated exports of grain, timber, furs, and wax to Western Europe, in exchange for luxury goods and metalware. However, local Latvians and Estonians remained largely disenfranchised, working as serfs on estates owned by German landowners. This separation allowed indigenous languages and customs to persist, despite the imposition of Christianity.

Governance within the Confederation was marred by internal conflicts among the Livonian Order, the bishops, and powerful merchant cities. In 1419, the Livonian Diet (Landtag) was established in Walk to resolve disputes, though cooperation among factions was often fragile. Despite its structure as a cooperative alliance, the Confederation primarily served German interests, with native populations subjected to exploitation.

The Confederation began to unravel during the Livonian War (1558–1582), as Russia, Poland-Lithuania, and Sweden vied for control of the Baltic. Weakened by internal tensions and the conversion of many knights to Lutheranism, the Livonian Order dissolved in 1561. Its last Grand Master, Gotthard Kettler, became the first Duke of the newly formed Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, which became a vassal of Poland-Lithuania. Meanwhile, Riga became a Free Imperial City, and other parts of the Confederation were divided between Poland-Lithuania and Sweden.

The Livonian War ended German control in the region and ushered in new struggles between Sweden, Poland-Lithuania, and Russia for dominance. Though the Confederation collapsed, the German-speaking elite maintained influence for centuries. The local Baltic people, now under new rulers, continued to face foreign domination, first by Poland-Lithuania and Sweden, and later by Russia, which solidified control after the Great Northern War (1700–1721).

The Livonian Civil War began in 1296 in the region known as Terra Mariana (modern-day Latvia and Estonia). The conflict arose between the burghers (citizens) of Riga and the Livonian Order, a branch of the Teutonic Knights. The tensions were driven by power struggles between the growing independence of urban communities and the military-religious authority of the Order.

Initially, Johannes III von Schwerin, the Archbishop of Riga, tried to mediate the dispute but later joined the side of Riga’s citizens. However, this alignment did not end well for the archbishop, as he was defeated and taken prisoner by the Livonian Order. The war intensified when Riga, seeking additional military support, allied with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1298.

The conflict continued with notable events like the Battle of Turaida in 1298, where Riga’s forces, supported by Lithuanian troops under Vytenis, dealt a major blow to the Livonian Order. However, the Livonian Order quickly regrouped with reinforcements from the Teutonic Knights, retaliating by besieging Riga and inflicting heavy losses. A fragile truce followed, mediated by Pope Boniface VIII and Eric VI of Denmark, though the alliance between Riga and Lithuania persisted for several more years, prolonging instability in the region.

The Reformation reached Livonia in 1521, introduced by Andreas Knöpken, a follower of Martin Luther. It gained momentum in 1524 when Protestant riots erupted, with Catholic churches being attacked. By 1525, freedom of religion was declared, marking a turning point as Protestant services began to be held in Latvian, and the first Latvian-speaking parishes were established. Lutheranism quickly spread, especially in urban centers, and by the mid-16th century, it became the dominant faith across the region.

The Reformation had profound effects on the Livonian Confederation. Many members of the Livonian Order and the urban elites converted to Lutheranism, creating tensions between the Order, which traditionally supported Catholicism, and the bishops. This internal conflict weakened the already fragile alliance between the Confederation’s factions. The religious shift eroded the influence of the Catholic Church, undermining its authority and further destabilizing the Confederation, which was already struggling with political fragmentation. 

By the time of the Livonian War (1558–1582), the Confederation was too divided to resist external threats effectively, contributing to its collapse in 1561. The spread of Lutheranism thus not only transformed religious life but also played a key role in the disintegration of the Livonian Confederation, ushering in a new era of foreign control over Latvia.

By the mid-16th century, Old Livonia—comprising present-day Latvia and Estonia—was economically prosperous but politically fragmented and religiously divided. The decentralized Livonian Confederation included the Livonian Order, several prince-bishoprics (such as Dorpat and Ösel-Wiek), the Archbishopric of Riga, and major cities like Riga and Reval (Tallinn). These entities operated with considerable independence, and their only shared institution was the Landtag, a periodic assembly of estates. However, internal rivalries, especially between the Archbishop of Riga and the Livonian Order, weakened the Confederation's unity.

The spread of the Reformation to Livonia in the 1520s further undermined cohesion. Lutheranism gradually replaced Catholicism, particularly in urban areas, but parts of the Livonian Order resisted the shift and remained loyal to Catholicism. This schism left the Confederation politically weak and vulnerable to outside powers, with no unified military or administrative structure to resist external threats. As historian Robert I. Frost observed, Livonia was "racked with internal bickering" and ill-prepared for the conflicts that would soon engulf the region.

Key Events of the Livonian War (1558–1583)  

In 1558, Russia, under Tsar Ivan IV, launched an invasion of Livonia to exploit the region's weakness and secure access to the Baltic trade routes. Russian forces swiftly captured key towns, including Dorpat (Tartu) and Narva, with many local fortresses surrendering without resistance. Seeing the opportunity, Denmark, Sweden, and Poland-Lithuania intervened to curb Russian expansion. Sweden established control over northern Estonia, while Denmark took the island of Ösel (Saaremaa). 

The collapse of the Livonian Confederation accelerated in 1561 when Gotthard Kettler, the Livonian Order’s last leader, dissolved the Order and converted to Lutheranism. He established the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia as a vassal state of Poland-Lithuania. The rest of Livonia fell under Polish and Swedish influence, with the Confederation's member states either secularized or absorbed into foreign powers.

Meanwhile, Russia continued its campaigns, briefly establishing a vassal state, the Kingdom of Livonia, under Magnus of Holstein. However, Polish-Lithuanian forces under King Stephen Báthory launched a counteroffensive in 1578, recapturing key towns and besieging Russian-held Pskov. Swedish forces also secured northern Livonia, taking Narva in 1581.

Aftermath and Impact  

The Livonian War ended with the Truce of Jam Zapolski (1582) between Russia and Poland-Lithuania, and the Truce of Plussa (1583) between Russia and Sweden. Russia lost all its conquests in Livonia, ceding them to Sweden and Poland-Lithuania. Sweden retained control of northern Estonia, while the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia became a stable vassal of Poland-Lithuania.

Division of Livonia by 1600. © HistoryMaps

The war marked the end of German dominance in Livonia and the dissolution of the Livonian Confederation. The region remained fragmented, with Latvia divided between Swedish and Polish-Lithuanian control. For the local population, however, the shift in rulers did little to improve conditions, as foreign domination persisted. The Livonian War devastated towns, disrupted trade, and left the Baltic region a battleground for rival powers for years to come, setting the stage for future conflicts over control of the Baltic.

In 1600, tensions between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden erupted into open conflict. The roots of the war lay in a dynastic struggle. Sigismund III Vasa, once king of both Sweden and Poland, had been dethroned by his uncle, Charles IX, in 1599. Although exiled to Poland, Sigismund refused to abandon his claim to the Swedish throne. Meanwhile, both Poland-Lithuania and Sweden sought control over Livonia and Estonia, key regions that provided access to vital Baltic trade routes.

Swedish forces quickly invaded Livonia (modern-day northern Latvia and southern Estonia) in 1600, hoping to secure their hold over the region. Polish forces responded under the command of Jan Karol Chodkiewicz, an experienced military leader. The conflict saw a series of skirmishes and sieges, with both sides struggling to maintain control over fortresses and trade hubs.

Kircholm and the Shift in Momentum (1601–1605)

The early years of the war were marked by Swedish advances into Livonia, but the Commonwealth’s army, led by Chodkiewicz, managed to retake key strongholds. In 1605, the two armies met near Kircholm, close to Salaspils in modern Latvia. Outnumbered nearly 3 to 1, Chodkiewicz’s forces delivered a stunning victory over the Swedes. The Battle of Kircholm became one of the most decisive battles of the war, with the Commonwealth cavalry crushing the Swedish army in a swift and bloody encounter. Swedish ambitions were temporarily halted, and Poland-Lithuania regained ground in Livonia.

However, this victory was not enough to end the war. Poland-Lithuania was overstretched, fighting on multiple fronts, including conflicts with Russia. The Commonwealth's nobility, more focused on internal politics, lacked the will to sustain a long campaign against Sweden. The Swedes regrouped, and their ambitions for control over Riga and Livonia remained alive.

The Capture of Riga and Swedish Resurgence (1621)

In 1621, the war entered a new phase under Gustavus Adolphus, the new Swedish king, who reinvigorated the campaign. Sweden launched a major offensive and captured Riga, the largest and most important city in Livonia. The fall of Riga marked a turning point, as the city’s strategic location on the Daugava River gave Sweden a key trading port and strengthened its influence in the Baltic region.

The capture of Riga was a severe blow to Poland-Lithuania. Although the Commonwealth retained southern Livonia (Latgale), Sweden now controlled northern Latvia and much of Estonia, laying the foundations for what would become Swedish Livonia. Riga, which had prospered under Polish rule, was now integrated into Sweden’s growing empire.

Final Years and the Treaty of Altmark (1629)

The fighting dragged on throughout the 1620s, with neither side able to secure a decisive victory. Both Sweden and Poland-Lithuania were exhausted by the prolonged conflict. Sweden’s involvement in the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) complicated its campaign in Livonia, while Poland-Lithuania faced ongoing conflicts with Russia and internal political instability.

In 1629, the war ended with the Treaty of Altmark, which confirmed Sweden’s control over northern Livonia, including Riga. Poland-Lithuania retained control of southern Livonia (Latgale) and the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, which remained a vassal of the Commonwealth.

Impact on Latvia

The Polish–Swedish War shaped the political landscape of Latvia for decades. With the capture of Riga, Sweden established dominance over northern Latvia and parts of Estonia, forming Swedish Livonia. Under Swedish rule, Riga became an important trading hub, further integrating Latvia into the Baltic trade network. However, the local Latvian population remained under foreign rule, first by Poland-Lithuania and now by Sweden.

Although Sweden’s governance introduced some administrative reforms and promoted Lutheranism, life for the Latvian peasantry remained difficult, with social stratification and serfdom still in place. The division of Latvian territory between Sweden in the north and Poland-Lithuania in the south (Latgale) would persist until the Great Northern War in the early 18th century, when Russia emerged as the dominant power in the Baltic.

The Curonian colonization of the Americas was a bold but short-lived venture by the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, a vassal state of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, in present-day Latvia. Despite its small size and population of only 200,000, the Duchy, under the leadership of Duke Jacob Kettler, developed one of the largest merchant fleets in Europe. Influenced by mercantilist ideas, Duke Jacob aimed to expand trade and establish overseas colonies. 

In 1637, Courland’s first attempt to settle the Caribbean island of Tobago failed due to blockades and attacks by Spanish forces. A second attempt in 1642 also faltered after conflicts with indigenous Carib tribes. Despite these setbacks, the Duchy redirected its colonial ambitions toward Africa, establishing Fort Jacob on St. Andrews Island in the Gambia River in 1651.

In 1654, the Curonians made a third attempt to colonize Tobago, founding a settlement called New Courland with a fort named Jacobus and a nearby town, Jacobsstadt. However, the colony soon faced competition from the Dutch, who established their own settlement on the island. Although the Curonian settlers managed to export goods like sugar, tobacco, and coffee, they remained overshadowed by the growing Dutch presence.

The colonization effort was further weakened during the Northern Wars (1655–1660), when Swedish forces invaded the Duchy of Courland and captured Duke Jacob. During his captivity, the Dutch surrounded and captured the Curonian fort on Tobago, forcing the colony’s surrender in 1659. Although the Treaty of Oliwa (1660) briefly restored Tobago to Courland, subsequent Spanish and Dutch opposition thwarted further attempts to reclaim it.

By 1680, the Duchy made a final, unsuccessful effort to re-establish the colony. Facing mounting European competition and internal decline, Courland permanently abandoned Tobago in 1690. The episode reflected Courland's ambition to punch above its weight in European geopolitics, but also marked the limits of Latvian colonial endeavors. Despite these setbacks, Duke Jacob’s maritime ambitions contributed to the Duchy’s brief economic prosperity and left a symbolic legacy, commemorated today by the Courland Monument on Tobago.

The Curonian colonization of the Americas remains a unique chapter in Latvian history, highlighting the region’s involvement in early global trade networks, even as it remained under foreign domination in Europe.

The Great Northern War began in 1700 as a struggle for dominance in the Baltic region, primarily between Sweden and Russia. Sweden, having built a powerful Baltic empire in the 17th century, controlled key provinces, including Livonia (modern-day northern Latvia and southern Estonia). However, Peter the Great of Russia, determined to regain Russian access to the Baltic Sea, formed an alliance with Denmark, Saxony, and Poland-Lithuania to challenge Swedish supremacy.

The Rise and Decline of Swedish Power

During the 17th century, Sweden created a vast empire around the Gulf of Finland, encompassing Karelia, Ingria, Estonia, and Livonia. Swedish Livonia included Riga, the largest port city in the region. Sweden’s military prowess and administrative reforms allowed it to expand across Northern Europe, including victories in the Thirty Years' War and conquests of Danish and Norwegian territories. However, Sweden’s empire relied heavily on plunder and taxation of occupied territories to finance its campaigns. Over time, resources were drained, leaving Sweden vulnerable to prolonged warfare.

Russia, on the other hand, had been weakened during the Time of Troubles in the early 17th century. The Treaty of Stolbovo (1617) had deprived Russia of access to the Baltic. By the end of the century, Peter the Great sought to reverse those losses. He modernized Russia’s military and administration and in 1700, with Saxony and Denmark as allies, launched the Great Northern War against Sweden.

Key Events in Latvia

In the early stages of the war, Sweden managed to hold off its enemies, defeating Denmark and repelling Russian forces at the Battle of Narva (1700). However, Peter the Great rebuilt his army and launched new offensives. By 1709, after Sweden’s defeat at the Battle of Poltava, Russian forces gained the upper hand.

In 1710, Russian troops captured Riga, the most strategically significant city in Livonia. With the capitulation of Livonia, the entire region—including much of present-day Latvia—fell under Russian control. The devastation caused by the war was compounded by the Great Northern War plague outbreak, which killed up to 75% of the population in some areas of Livonia.

Aftermath

The war formally ended with the Treaty of Nystad (1721). Sweden relinquished its claims to Livonia, Estonia, and Ingria, solidifying Russian control over the Baltic region. In Latvia, Riga became part of the newly established Riga Governorate (1713), which was later reformed into the Governorate of Livonia (Vidzeme) in 1796. The German Baltic nobility retained significant autonomy under Russian rule, preserving their privileges, self-governing Landtags, Lutheran faith, and the use of German as the administrative language.

The Great Northern War marked the end of Swedish influence in Latvia and the beginning of Russian dominance, which would last for centuries. Although Russia now controlled Latvia, much of the local governance remained in the hands of the German elite. The war also disrupted trade and agriculture, and the plague outbreak left a lasting demographic impact on the region. Russian rule would eventually tighten, but for the time being, German nobility and Lutheran traditions persisted, shaping life in Latvia for generations.

After the Great Northern War (1700–1721), Russia had already taken control of Livonia, encompassing northern Latvia and the city of Riga. However, further territorial changes in the 18th century came with the decline of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, culminating in its partition. These events brought all Latvian-inhabited territories under Russian rule, reshaping the political and cultural landscape of the region.

In 1772, the First Partition of Poland transferred the Inflanty Voivodeship (Latgale) to Russia. Initially part of the Mogilev Governorate, Latgale was reassigned to the Vitebsk Governorate in 1802. This administrative separation deepened the cultural and linguistic divide between Latgalians and other ethnic Latvians. While northern Latvia (Vidzeme), now known as the Governorate of Livonia, maintained its Lutheran traditions, Latgale became increasingly influenced by the Orthodox Slavic sphere, drifting away from the Lutheranism that prevailed in other parts of Latvia.

In 1795, the Third Partition of Poland marked the annexation of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia by Russia, eliminating the last vestiges of Polish influence over Latvian territory. Russia formally established the Courland Governorate, but the German Baltic nobility retained significant autonomy. They continued to dominate landownership, education, and administration, ensuring the region’s social structure remained largely intact for the next century.

By 1795, Russia had unified all Latvian-inhabited regions under its empire: Vidzeme (Livonia) in the north, Latgale in the east, and Courland in the west. However, these regions followed distinct trajectories. In Livonia and Courland, the German elite retained control over governance, while Latgale’s integration into Russian Orthodox systems fostered cultural differences that distanced it from the rest of Latvia. These internal divisions—Lutheranism in the north and west, Orthodoxy in the east—shaped Latvia’s cultural identity and political development for years to come.

Following Napoleon’s failed invasion of Russia in 1812, Latvia’s trajectory under Russian rule entered a new phase, marked by reforms aimed at the gradual emancipation of peasants and significant social changes. These reforms took place in the Governorates of Livonia, Courland, and Latgale, reshaping the relationship between landowners and the Latvian peasantry. However, the process was complex and often incomplete, as peasants gained personal freedom but not ownership of land, perpetuating economic dependence on the German nobility for several more decades.

Emancipation Begins: The Early Reforms in Livonia and Courland (1804–1819)

The first stirrings of reform were triggered by discontent within the peasantry. In 1802, the Kauguri rebellion shook the Livonian Governorate, prompting Russian authorities to implement new laws. In 1804, legislation aimed to improve conditions for peasants, establishing that they could no longer be sold independently from the land. However, the reforms did not grant peasants full freedom or land ownership. German nobles still retained significant power, and the labor obligations of peasants—known as socage (forced labor)—were only minimally reduced. In 1809, under pressure from the nobility, parts of these reforms were reversed, restoring some privileges to the landowners.

More significant reforms came with Courland’s emancipation law, passed by the Courland Landtag in 1817 and proclaimed the following year in Jelgava (Mitau), in the presence of Czar Alexander I. The law abolished serfdom and provided personal freedom to peasants, but it did not grant them ownership of the land they worked. Instead, they were required to lease land from the nobility, ensuring continued economic dependence. This system remained in place until the 1860s.

Expansion of Emancipation: Reforms in Livonia (1820) and Latgale (1861)

Inspired by the Courland model, Livonia (Vidzeme) enacted similar reforms in 1819, with emancipation becoming law in early 1820. As in Courland, peasants were granted personal freedom but no access to land ownership. Until the 1830s, they also needed permission from landowners to move to towns or other governorates, limiting their mobility and economic opportunities.

The situation in Latgale—part of the Vitebsk Governorate—followed a different timeline. Since Latgale was integrated into the broader Russian Empire, serfdom persisted until the empire-wide emancipation reform of 1861. Even after gaining freedom, Latgalian peasants were required to continue performing socage and paying rent until a new law in 1863 abolished these obligations.

Further Reforms and the Rise of a Latvian Landowning Class (1830s–1860s)

While the early emancipation laws freed peasants from personal bondage, they remained tied to the landowners’ estates through leasing agreements. However, reforms in the mid-19th century began to open opportunities for Latvian farmers to purchase land. The Livonian Agrarian Law of 1849, made permanent in 1860, allowed peasants to buy their farms from German landowners. The introduction of credit unions in 1864 further enabled farmers to access loans, accelerating the transfer of land ownership. By the start of World War I, nearly 99% of farms in Courland and 90% in Livonia had been purchased by Latvian farmers, creating a new class of landowning Latvian peasants.

The gradual acquisition of land and rising prosperity allowed many Latvian families to send their children to schools and pursue higher education, contributing to the emergence of a Latvian national consciousness in the following decades.

Emigration to Siberia and Beyond

Despite these opportunities, many peasants faced economic challenges or were reluctant to purchase land. In the 1870s and 1880s, thousands of Latvian families took advantage of Russian policies offering free land in Siberia. By the outbreak of World War I, nearly 200,000 Latvians had relocated to Siberian farming colonies, establishing new communities far from their homeland.

In 1812, during Napoleon’s invasion of Russia, Prussian troops led by Field Marshal Yorck entered Courland (western Latvia) and advanced toward Riga. A key encounter took place at the Battle of Mesoten, as Napoleon's forces aimed to secure the Baltic region. In a symbolic gesture, Napoleon proclaimed the restoration of the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia under a French-Polish protectorate, attempting to revive Courland's autonomy and gain support from the local population.

Meanwhile, the Russian governor-general of Riga, Ivan Essen, braced for an attack. In a desperate move to hinder the advancing troops, Essen ordered the burning of Riga’s wooden suburbs, leaving thousands of residents homeless as flames consumed their homes. However, Yorck’s forces never attacked Riga, and the French advance toward the Baltic faltered.

By December 1812, after the disastrous failure of Napoleon’s Russian campaign, his army retreated from the region. The brief occupation of Courland ended without major territorial changes, but the destruction of Riga’s suburbs left a lasting impact on the city's population, underscoring the hardships brought to Latvia by foreign wars.

The Latvian National Awakening was a transformative movement that began in the mid-19th century, spurred by emancipation of the serfs and a rise in literacy and education. As Latvians gained access to knowledge, many sought to reclaim their cultural identity and resist Germanization, which had long dominated Latvian society. This awakening not only nurtured Latvian literature, folklore, and education but also laid the foundation for future political movements that would shape the country's path toward independence.

Early Cultural Efforts: Foundations of Latvian Literature and Education

The first signs of national revival appeared in the early 19th century with the publication of the first Latvian-language newspapers. In 1822, Latviešu Avīzes began circulating, followed in 1832 by Tas Latviešu Ļaužu Draugs. These weeklies fostered interest in Latvian culture and gave rise to the first Latvian writers, such as Ansis Liventāls and Jānis Ruģēns, who began publishing works in Latvian.

A significant step toward improving education came in 1839, when Jānis Cimze opened an institute for elementary school teachers in Valmiera. This training center produced the first generation of educated Latvian teachers, helping spread literacy and cultural awareness across rural communities. These efforts created a fertile ground for the rise of a national consciousness among Latvians.

The Rise of the Young Latvians (Jaunlatvieši)

By the 1850s, the First Latvian National Awakening took shape, largely led by a group of intellectuals known as the Young Latvians (jaunlatvieši). This movement, which reflected broader nationalist currents in Europe, focused on cultural revival but also carried important political implications. For the first time, the idea of a united Latvian nation began to emerge.

The Young Latvians emphasized the preservation and study of Latvian folklore, such as dainas—traditional Latvian folk songs—and explored ancient beliefs. Their efforts to reclaim Latvian identity brought them into conflict with the Baltic Germans, who had long held power in education, administration, and land ownership. The movement also encouraged Latvians to assert their language and culture as central to their identity.

Russian Russification and Its Impact on Latvian Culture (1880s–1890s)

In the 1880s, Alexander III implemented a policy of Russification to curb German influence in the Baltic provinces. Russian replaced German in administration, courts, and education, disrupting the dominance of German institutions. However, this policy also had unintended consequences for the Latvian national movement.

While German influence diminished, Latvian language and culture were also restricted. Latvian was banned in schools and public spaces, dealing a severe blow to the burgeoning national identity. The Russification campaign sought to integrate the region into the Russian imperial structure, but it only deepened the desire among Latvians to preserve their culture and resist both German and Russian dominance.

Urbanization, Industrialization, and the Rise of Leftist Movements

As poverty persisted in rural areas, many Latvians migrated to cities, especially Riga, which became a center of industrialization. This urbanization gave rise to new social movements. In the late 1880s, a broad leftist movement called the New Current emerged, led by Rainis (Latvia's future national poet) and Pēteris Stučka. The New Current initially sought social reforms but later became heavily influenced by Marxism, advocating for workers' rights and equality.

The ideas of the New Current laid the groundwork for the formation of the Latvian Social Democratic Labour Party. Rainis remained a committed social democrat throughout his life, playing a crucial role in the political and cultural development of Latvia. In contrast, Pēteris Stučka aligned with Lenin and helped establish the first Bolshevik state in Latvia, later becoming a prominent figure in the Soviet Union.

The 1905 Revolution marked a turbulent chapter in Latvian history, reflecting deep-rooted social, economic, and political grievances. Sparked by the wider unrest across the Russian Empire, the revolution in Latvia targeted not only the czarist regime but also the Baltic German nobility, whose dominance in the region had long oppressed Latvian peasants and workers.

Latvia was unique within the Russian Empire, with a highly literate and industrialized population, making it both receptive to leftist ideologies and nationalist aspirations. At the time, Riga was a thriving industrial hub, ranking behind only St. Petersburg and Moscow in terms of industrial workforce, and over 90% of Latvians were literate. While the revolution was spearheaded by left-wing movements like the Latvian Social Democratic Workers’ Party (LSDSP), it also attracted support from peasants and the intelligentsia, unified by resentment toward the feudal system maintained by Baltic German elites, who represented about 7% of the population.

Revolution Unfolds: Urban Protests and Rural Uprisings

The revolution erupted in Latvia following Bloody Sunday in St. Petersburg on January 9, 1905, when Russian troops opened fire on peaceful protesters. The events quickly spilled into Riga, where demonstrators staged a general strike. On January 13, Russian troops killed 73 people and injured 200 during a protest in the city, fueling further unrest.

As the year progressed, the revolutionary wave shifted to rural areas, where peasants—emboldened by the growing unrest—launched uprisings against the Baltic German nobility. By the summer of 1905, 470 parish administrative bodies were elected in 94% of Latvian parishes, signaling a grassroots effort to seize local governance. The Congress of Parish Representatives met in Riga in November, underscoring the growing momentum of the movement.

However, the revolt was not limited to peaceful protests. Revolutionary fighters burned down 449 German manor houses, attacked estates, seized property, and appropriated weapons. Armed Latvian peasants in Vidzeme and Courland established revolutionary councils in towns and controlled key areas like the Rūjiena-Pärnu railway line. In Courland, revolutionary forces surrounded towns, while armed clashes between peasants and German landowners erupted across Latvia, with over 1,000 skirmishes recorded.

Repression and Martial Law

In response to the escalating unrest, the authorities declared martial law in Courland in August 1905 and in Vidzeme by November. The czarist regime launched punitive expeditions, deploying Cossack cavalry units and Baltic German militias to suppress the revolution. These units conducted brutal reprisals, executing over 2,000 people without trial and burning hundreds of homes. Among those executed were local teachers and activists, many targeted for minor acts of defiance rather than direct revolutionary involvement.

In addition, 427 individuals were sentenced to death by court-martial, and 2,652 people were exiled to Siberia. Others fled to Western Europe or the United States, with over 5,000 exiles seeking refuge abroad. Some of the revolutionaries, known as "forest guerrillas," continued their resistance into 1907, launching daring operations such as the Helsinki bank robbery in 1906 and the 1910 Siege of Sidney Street in London.

Legacy and Political Divisions Among Exiles

The 1905 Revolution left lasting scars on Latvia. Many of the exiles—from both the left and right—would later shape the country’s future. Some of these figures, like Kārlis Ulmanis, Jānis Rainis, and Jēkabs Peterss, would find themselves on opposing sides in the struggle for Latvian independence just a decade later. Rainis, the celebrated national poet, would champion social democracy, while Ulmanis would become Latvia’s authoritarian leader. Meanwhile, Jēkabs Peterss would align with the Bolsheviks, playing a leading role in the Soviet Cheka.

The outbreak of World War I in August 1914 quickly embroiled Latvia due to its strategic location along the eastern front. With the Courland Governorate sharing a border with Germany, the region saw military action from the start. German warships bombarded Liepāja and other coastal areas, and many Latvians served in Russian units that took part in battles like the First and Second Battles of the Masurian Lakes. Early clashes resulted in 25,000 Latvian casualties during Russia’s failed invasions into East Prussia.

German Invasion and Refugee Crisis (1915)

By May 1915, the war reached Latvia’s territory. German forces captured Liepāja and Kuldīga by May 7, and by August, they took Jelgava and other parts of Courland. In response to the advancing Germans, Russian authorities ordered the evacuation of entire regions. The forced displacement affected around 500,000 people, many of whom fled eastward to Russia, often under harsh conditions. Crops and homes were destroyed to prevent them from falling into German hands, and refugees faced hunger, disease, and hardship in makeshift camps across Russia.

The Latvian Refugee Aid Central Committee, led by future political figures like Jānis Čakste and Vilis Olavs, provided aid, housing, schools, and hospitals for displaced Latvians. However, many refugees remained in Russia, with some later joining the Bolshevik government, only to be purged during Stalin's repressions in the 1930s.

Latvian Riflemen and the Front Line

As the German offensive advanced, Latvian leaders issued a call for the formation of Latvian Riflemen units. These battalions began fighting in 1915 and held defensive positions along the Daugava River, including the crucial Nāves Sala (Island of Death) bridgehead. They distinguished themselves during the Christmas Battles of 1916-1917, though they suffered heavy casualties.

With the collapse of the Russian army following the February Revolution of 1917, many Riflemen shifted their allegiance to the Bolsheviks. This shift played a key role in Soviet efforts to secure power, with Jukums Vācietis, a Latvian, becoming the first Red Army commander-in-chief. However, the German capture of Riga in September 1917 marked the end of the Russian presence in Latvia.

German Occupation and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918)

Following the October Revolution of 1917, the Bolsheviks took control of Russia. In March 1918, they signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, ceding Courland and Livonia to Germany. Under German occupation, plans emerged to create a United Baltic Duchy tied to Prussia, though these ambitions were cut short by Germany’s defeat in November 1918.

The war caused widespread destruction in Latvia. A 1920 survey revealed that 57% of parishes suffered war-related damage. The population dropped from 2.55 million to 1.59 million, and the ethnic Latvian population never fully recovered to its pre-war levels.

The war devastated infrastructure and agriculture, with 87,700 buildings destroyed, 27% of farmland left in ruin, and 25,000 farms obliterated. Much of Riga’s industry, evacuated to Russia, was lost permanently, and ports, railways, and bridges were heavily damaged.

Amid the chaos of World War I and the Russian Revolution, Latvia moved towards self-determination. In October 1917, Latvian centrist politicians and representatives from soldiers’ committees and refugee organizations met in Petrograd and agreed to form a united national council. On November 29, 1917, the Latvian Provisional National Council was established in Valka, a city on the Latvian-Estonian border. The council declared Latvia’s autonomy over Latvian-inhabited territories and announced its goals: the creation of political autonomy, the convening of a Constitutional Assembly, and the unification of all Latvian regions.

Struggles for Recognition and Division

The National Council faced challenges, competing with the Bolshevik-controlled Iskolat (pro-Soviet administration) also based in Valka. In January 1918, Latvian deputy Jānis Goldmanis declared Latvia’s separation from Russia at the Russian Constituent Assembly, though the assembly was soon dissolved by the Bolsheviks.

On January 30, 1918, the National Council officially declared that Latvia should become an independent, democratic republic, uniting the regions of Kurzeme, Vidzeme, and Latgale. However, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918 gave Kurzeme and Vidzeme to Germany, leaving Latgale out of the arrangement. The council protested this division but lacked the power to prevent it.

Diplomatic Progress Amid German Collapse

On November 11, 1918, the British Empire recognized the Latvian National Council as a de facto government, lending diplomatic support for independence. However, internal divisions persisted, with Social Democrats and the Democratic Bloc refusing to join the National Council, preventing the formation of a unified front.

Following the collapse of the German Empire in November 1918, German authorities recognized Latvia’s independence. On November 17, factions finally agreed to create the People's Council (Tautas padome). The following day, November 18, 1918, the People’s Council proclaimed the independence of the Republic of Latvia and established a Provisional Government led by Kārlis Ulmanis. This moment marked the birth of independent Latvia, although the country would soon face further struggles for sovereignty amid the Latvian War of Independence.

The Latvian War of Independence was a series of complex military conflicts that unfolded between December 1918 and August 1920, involving Latvian forces, Soviet Russia, German paramilitary units, and later, allied support from Estonia, Poland, and the United Kingdom. The war ended with Latvian victory and the formal establishment of Latvia as an independent state.

Soviet Offensive and the Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic

Latvia declared independence on November 18, 1918, under the provisional government led by Kārlis Ulmanis, but just two weeks later, Soviet Russia invaded. The Red Latvian Riflemen, fighting for the Bolsheviks, facilitated a rapid Soviet advance. By January 1919, much of Latvia was under Soviet control, including Riga, and the Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic was proclaimed.

The Latvian government retreated to Liepāja in the west, relying on support from German paramilitary forces such as the Baltische Landeswehr and the Iron Division to resist Soviet advances.

Counteroffensives and German-Latvian Tensions

In March 1919, Latvian and German units launched a counteroffensive, retaking Jelgava and parts of Kurzeme. However, tensions emerged between the Latvian nationalists and the German forces. On April 16, 1919, the German-backed forces staged a coup in Liepāja, installing a puppet government under Andrievs Niedra, forcing Ulmanis and his government to take refuge on a British ship in the harbor.

Despite the internal strife, Latvian and Estonian forces, supported by the Estonian Army, recaptured Riga on May 22, 1919, but atrocities followed, with the German forces executing thousands of suspected Bolshevik supporters.

Battle of Cēsis and German Defeat

After taking Riga, the German forces attempted to extend their control north. They clashed with Estonian and Latvian national units near Cēsis in June 1919. The Battle of Cēsis on June 23 marked a turning point, with Estonian forces defeating the German Landeswehr and Iron Division, forcing them to retreat towards Riga.

The Allies intervened, insisting the Germans cease their attacks and withdraw from Latvia. The Ulmanis government was restored to Riga on July 8, 1919.

Bermontian Offensive

In the autumn of 1919, the Germans, now reorganized as the West Russian Volunteer Army under Pavel Bermondt-Avalov, launched a new offensive against the Latvian government. On October 8, Bermondt’s forces captured the left bank of the Daugava River in Riga, forcing the Latvian government to evacuate the city.

However, on October 15, Latvian forces crossed the Daugava River, retaking key positions such as Bolderāja and Daugavgrīva Fortress. On November 11, 1919, Latvian forces launched a decisive counteroffensive, expelling Bermondt’s army from Riga. By early December, Bermondt’s forces were pushed out of Latvia entirely.

With German forces neutralized, Latvian attention turned to the liberation of Latgale. In early 1920, Latvian and Polish armies jointly launched a campaign against Soviet forces in the region. By January 1920, they successfully drove the Red Army out of Latgale.

The war officially ended with the signing of the Latvian-Soviet Peace Treaty on August 11, 1920, in which Soviet Russia recognized Latvia's independence.

Aftermath

The Latvian War of Independence secured Latvia's sovereignty and unified its regions. The war, however, came at a high cost, with thousands of casualties and widespread devastation. Latvia's independence would last until 1940, when it was forcibly annexed by the Soviet Union, but the success of the war remained a pivotal moment in Latvian history, cementing its national identity and independence.

After Latvia's independence was secured, the parliamentary era began with elections to the Constitutional Assembly in April 1920, followed by the adoption of the Latvian Constitution in 1922. This period was marked by frequent government changes, economic reforms, and border disputes, but ended abruptly with a coup d'état in 1934.

Latvia’s first elections reflected the fragmentation of its political landscape. The Social Democratic Workers' Party won the most seats but refused to join coalition governments, resulting in unstable governments led mostly by the Latvian Farmers' Union. In just 12 years, Latvia saw 13 different governments and 9 prime ministers. Four parliamentary elections were held during this period (1922, 1925, 1928, 1931). The Presidency rotated between Jānis Čakste (1922–27), Gustavs Zemgals (1927–30), and Alberts Kviesis (1930–34). However, the division among parties and rising political instability would later contribute to Kārlis Ulmanis’ coup in 1934.

Border Disputes and Resolutions

Latvia faced border conflicts with Estonia, Lithuania, and Poland:

• Northern Border: Estonia and Latvia clashed over the Valka region but resolved it through British-led arbitration. Latvia retained Ainaži parish, while Estonia received most of Valka.
• Southern Border: Latvia and Lithuania disputed control over Palanga and Aknīste, but in 1921, an arbitration committee granted Palanga to Lithuania and Aknīste to Latvia.
• Polish Border: Latvia and Poland avoided conflict after cooperating against the Soviets. In 1929, Latvia compensated Polish landowners for losses along their shared border.

Foreign Relations

Latvia focused on building alliances and securing international recognition. Zigfrīds Anna Meierovics, Latvia’s key diplomat, ensured the country’s entry into the League of Nations in 1921. Despite initial hopes for a Baltic union, only Latvia and Estonia signed a military alliance in 1923. Latvia maintained balanced relations with both Germany and the Soviet Union, while expanding diplomatic missions across Europe.

Economic Policies and Challenges

The land reform was a cornerstone of Latvia’s economic policy. The government expropriated German estates and redistributed land to 54,000 new small farmers, transforming Latvia into a nation of smallholders focused on dairy farming. This reform weakened the German elite and promoted Latvian ownership of land.

Latvia also launched its own currency, first introducing the Latvian ruble in 1919, followed by the Latvian lats in 1922 to stabilize the economy. By 1923, the country was running budget surpluses, with major investments in education and defense. However, the Great Depression in 1929 caused unemployment, falling exports, and budget deficits. Latvia shifted to state monopolies and clearing trade agreements with France, Germany, and the UK to survive the economic downturn.

Political Fragmentation and Social Unrest

Latvia's democracy was marked by political instability. The Social Democrats controlled the Speaker’s post but refused to join coalition governments, leading to ineffective governance. Right-wing parties, like the Latvian Farmers' Union, led many of the short-lived governments. The extreme nationalist Pērkonkrusts party gained some influence, reflecting rising nationalist and anti-German sentiment.

Ethnic minorities, including Germans, Jews, and Poles, had their own small parties, which often participated in coalitions. Meanwhile, Communists operated underground, winning seats in parliament under disguised labels before being banned in 1933.

The inability to form stable governments and the economic hardships of the Depression weakened public trust in the democratic system. In May 1934, Kārlis Ulmanis—fearing the upcoming elections might diminish his influence—staged a coup d'état. He dissolved the parliament, suspended political parties, and established an authoritarian regime, ending the parliamentary era.

The parliamentary era laid the foundations for Latvia's democratic institutions, including its constitution and electoral system. However, political fragmentation and economic challenges limited the government’s effectiveness, paving the way for authoritarianism. Despite these difficulties, the period marked Latvia’s transition from agrarian dependency to industrialization and diplomatic integration into the European political order.

On May 15, 1934, Kārlis Ulmanis, one of the key leaders of Latvian independence, and Jānis Balodis, the Minister of War, staged a bloodless coup d'état that ended parliamentary democracy. The constitution was suspended, the parliament was dissolved, and all political parties were banned. Press censorship was introduced, and opponents from both the extreme left and right—including Pērkonkrusts nationalists, Social Democrats, and pro-Nazi Baltic Germans—were arrested, with some, like Gustavs Celmiņš, imprisoned.

Economic Reforms and State Control

Ulmanis' government actively expanded state control over the economy. The regime established Chambers of Trade, Industry, Agriculture, and Labor between 1934 and 1936, bringing cooperative societies and farmers under state supervision. To stabilize agriculture, bankrupt farmers were given debt relief, and the Central Union of Dairy Farmers was tasked with controlling the dairy industry.

In 1935, the Credit Bank of Latvia was created to replace foreign capital, leading to nationalization of foreign and minority-owned businesses. Large state-owned enterprises were formed, reducing competition among private firms. By 1939, the state controlled 38 companies across key sectors.

• Significant industrial developments included:
• Vairogs produced railway carriages and licensed Ford-Vairogs automobiles.
• VEF developed innovative products like the Minox camera and experimental aircraft.
• The Ķegums Hydroelectric Power Station (completed by Swedish companies) became the largest power station in the Baltics.

After the gold standard was abandoned, Latvia pegged the lats to the British pound in 1936, devaluing the currency and boosting exports. By 1939, Latvia enjoyed an economic boom propelled by agricultural exports, achieving higher GDP per capita than Finland and Austria. However, it took nearly 10 years to fully recover from the Great Depression.

Foreign Policy and Neutrality

Latvia pursued strict neutrality in the late 1930s, avoiding entanglement in European conflicts. In 1936, Latvia secured a non-permanent seat on the League of Nations Council and re-established its embassy in Washington, which later became crucial for maintaining Latvian diplomacy during the Soviet occupation.

As tensions in Europe grew:

• December 1938: Latvia formally declared absolute neutrality.
• March 1939: The Soviet Union claimed it was committed to protecting Latvian independence.
• June 1939: Latvia signed a non-aggression treaty with Germany.

When World War II began, Latvia remained neutral, though it was increasingly isolated. The Baltic Sea was blocked by Germany, cutting off trade with the United Kingdom. The Soviet-Latvian Mutual Assistance Treaty (October 5, 1939) allowed the Soviet Union to station troops in Latvia, but also opened new trade opportunities. In late 1939, Latvia signed trade agreements with both Germany and the Soviet Union, exchanging food exports for oil, fuel, and chemicals.

Impact of World War II on Latvia’s Economy

Latvia’s agricultural economy suffered as seasonal Polish laborers were no longer available due to the war. In response, the government introduced mandatory labor service for state employees, students, and schoolchildren in spring 1940 to fill labor shortages.

The Ulmanis dictatorship was characterized by centralized economic planning and political suppression, though it achieved economic recovery and stability after the Great Depression. However, Latvia’s neutrality and efforts to balance relations with both Germany and the Soviet Union could not prevent the looming threat of occupation. The regime’s policies set the stage for Latvia’s involvement in World War II and the eventual Soviet annexation in 1940.

Soviet Occupation (1940–1941)

Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of 1939, Latvia was assigned to the Soviet sphere of influence. Forced to accept the Soviet–Latvian Mutual Assistance Treaty, Latvia allowed 25,000 Soviet troops onto its soil. In June 1940, the Soviet Union issued an ultimatum and occupied Latvia on June 17 without resistance. Rigged elections in July led to Latvia’s formal annexation into the Soviet Union as the Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic on August 5, 1940.

The Soviet regime quickly moved to eliminate opposition. On June 13–14, 1941, over 15,000 Latvians were deported to Siberia, including political figures, intellectuals, and their families. In the first year of occupation, around 35,000 people were deported, destabilizing Latvian society. Plans for further deportations were interrupted by the Nazi invasion.

Nazi Occupation (1941–1944)

In June 1941, Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union and captured Riga on July 1, 1941. The German occupation dismantled Soviet structures but introduced its own repressive policies. Nazi officials sought to enlist local collaborators and conscripts, forming two divisions of Latvian Waffen-SS units to support the German war effort.

Resistance to Nazi rule developed in parallel with military collaboration. Some Latvians joined the Latvian Central Council, which sought to restore independence, while others joined pro-Soviet partisan units, operating with Soviet support. The Nazis planned to Germanize the Baltics and made use of local manpower to secure the region for future expansion.

The dual occupations devastated Latvia. Tens of thousands were deported, executed, or conscripted into foreign armies. The Soviet and Nazi regimes left Latvia's economy and infrastructure severely damaged. Cities, farms, and factories were destroyed or repurposed for war. The conflict also deepened internal divisions, with factions emerging on all sides—those collaborating with occupying powers, those fighting for independence, and those supporting Soviet interests. Latvia would face renewed Soviet occupation in 1944 as the Red Army advanced westward, bringing an end to the Nazi regime but imposing another era of repression.

Soviet retakes Latvia

In 1944, as the Soviet Red Army advanced westward, intense fighting erupted between German and Soviet forces on Latvian territory. Riga was re-captured by the Red Army on October 13, 1944, though the Courland Pocket, where German forces and Latvian conscripts made a last stand, held out until May 9, 1945. This prolonged resistance delayed the full Soviet takeover but did not prevent Latvia’s eventual occupation.

Both the Germans and Soviets conscripted Latvians into their armies during the war, causing significant human losses. Latvians found themselves divided, with some fighting alongside the German military, while others were recruited or coerced into serving in the Soviet forces.

As the Soviets re-established control in 1944, around 160,000 Latvians fled to Germany and Sweden to avoid Soviet reprisals. At the same time, some Latvians who had supported the Bolsheviks earlier chose to stay in Soviet Russia, where they continued to hold influential positions in the Communist Party.

During German occupation, nationalist partisans began organizing resistance, though Nazi authorities arrested many leaders. By the end of World War II, longer-lasting resistance units emerged, made up of former Latvian Legion soldiers and civilians. On September 8, 1944, the Latvian Central Council (LCC) in Riga issued a Declaration on the Restoration of the State of Latvia, seeking to restore Latvian independence and leverage the transition between occupying powers. The LCC's military branch included General Jānis Kurelis' group ("kurelieši") and Lieutenant Roberts Rubenis' battalion, both of which resisted the Nazis and later Soviet forces.

At its peak, the partisan movement involved 10,000 to 15,000 active fighters and as many as 40,000 participants. From 1945 to 1955, they launched over 3,000 raids, targeting Soviet military personnel, party officials, and supply depots. Soviet reports recorded 1,562 Soviet personnel killed and 560 wounded during these operations.

A typical partisan action involved Tālrīts Krastiņš, a former soldier from the Latvian SS division. His group, operating secretly in Riga, attempted to assassinate the Soviet Latvian leader Vilis Lācis but failed, ultimately being captured by the NKVD in 1948.

The Forest Brothers, active in border areas such as Dundaga and Lubāna, collaborated with Estonian and Lithuanian partisans. Over time, Soviet security forces (MVD, NKVD) infiltrated and crushed the movement. Western intelligence support was compromised by Soviet counterintelligence and double agents. By 1957, the last resistance fighters surrendered, marking the end of organized partisan warfare.

After World War II, Latvia was forced to adopt Soviet-style collective farming, dismantling the independent agricultural system built during the 1920s and 1930s. Farms owned by refugees were confiscated, those tied to German supporters had their sizes reduced, and much farmland was transferred to state ownership. Taxes and mandatory produce quotas were imposed on remaining farmers, making individual farming unsustainable. As a result, many farmers slaughtered their livestock and moved to cities.

The process of collectivization began in earnest in 1948 and accelerated after the 1949 deportations. By the end of 1949, 93% of farms had been collectivized. However, the system proved inefficient and unprofitable. Farmers were required to follow state-imposed planting schedules rather than adjusting to local conditions, and payments for produce were negligible.

The impact was severe: grain production dropped from 1.37 million tons in 1940 to 0.73 million tons in 1950 and further to 0.43 million tons in 1956. It was not until 1965 that meat and dairy production in Latvia returned to pre-war levels.

In 1949, the Soviet authorities targeted 120,000 Latvian inhabitants, deemed disloyal, for imprisonment or deportation to Gulag labor camps. Many of those who managed to escape arrest joined the Forest Brothers' resistance movement.

The most devastating action occurred on March 25, 1949, with Operation Priboi, a mass deportation conducted across all three Baltic states. In Latvia, 43,000 rural residents, primarily "kulaks" (wealthier peasants), were forcibly deported to Siberia and northern Kazakhstan. The operation had been approved in Moscow on January 29, 1949. Entire families were arrested, with nearly 30% of those deported being children under 16.

These deportations were part of the Soviet effort to eliminate resistance and suppress potential opposition in rural areas by dismantling the traditional Latvian farming community.

From 1959 to 1962, Latvian national communists were purged from government positions, consolidating the power of Arvīds Pelše, the hardline Communist Party leader. In November 1959, Pelše initiated the removal of nearly 2,000 government officials accused of being "nascent nationalists." This marked a shift towards greater central Soviet control over Latvia, eroding local governance and autonomy.

In 1961, Pelše banned Jāņi, the traditional Latvian midsummer celebration, along with other folk customs, further suppressing national identity.

During this period, industrialization and immigration reshaped the demographic landscape. Between 1959 and 1968, nearly 130,000 Russian speakers moved to Latvia, filling jobs in large industrial factories that were rapidly constructed. The new immigrants were prioritized for housing in newly built micro-districts, which included modern apartment complexes. Many of these factories were overseen by All-Union ministries or military organizations, operating independently from Latvia’s planned economy.

Several key industrial enterprises emerged, such as the Rīgas Vagonbūves Rūpnīca, producing railway carriages, and the Riga Autobus Factory, manufacturing minibuses. Factories like VEF and Radiotehnika became important producers of radios, telephones, and sound systems for the Soviet Union.

In 1962, Russian gas began arriving in Riga, enabling the development of high-rise residential districts. This marked the beginning of large-scale construction projects. The Pļaviņas Hydroelectric Power Station, completed in 1965, became a significant energy source, contributing to the region’s growing infrastructure and industrial needs.

During the leadership of Augusts Voss, Latvia experienced intensified Russification and industrial expansion. The need for labor to staff newly built factories resulted in a large influx of Russian-speaking workers from other parts of the Soviet Union, further reducing the proportion of ethnic Latvians. Additionally, Riga's status as the headquarters of the Baltic Military District drew many active and retired Soviet officers, accelerating demographic changes.

Economic policies prioritized collective farms and infrastructure, with increased subsidies raising rural living standards but yielding little in terms of production. Much of the agricultural output continued to come from private family plots rather than the collective farms. A campaign to liquidate family farms aimed to relocate farmers into small agricultural towns with apartment housing, converting them into salaried workers on collective farms.

The Voss era initially continued the modernization efforts of the 1960s, but economic stagnation set in by the mid-1970s. Major construction projects, such as Hotel Latvija, the Ministry of Agriculture building, and the Vanšu Bridge over the Daugava River, were delayed for years, reflecting inefficiencies in the Soviet system. A new airport was also constructed, though with difficulties.

Meanwhile, a "live and let live" ideology emerged as the system tolerated growing absenteeism, alcoholism, and black market activities. Consumer goods were often scarce, leading many Latvians to focus on cultural escapism. The music of Raimonds Pauls, Riga Film Studio's comedies, and public events like Poetry Days became immensely popular as ways for people to find meaning and enjoyment amid economic stagnation.

In the mid-1980s, Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms of glasnost and perestroika created political openings in the Soviet Union, sparking Latvia’s national reawakening. In 1987, large demonstrations began in Riga, and by 1988 the Popular Front of Latvia (Tautas Fronte) formed as a leading force for independence. Latvia’s push for greater autonomy gained momentum, and in 1990, the old national flag was restored. In March 1990 elections, pro-independence candidates secured a majority in the Supreme Council.

On May 4, 1990, the Supreme Council declared Latvia’s independence and began a transition period toward full sovereignty, arguing that the 1940 Soviet annexation was illegal under international law. Latvia claimed it was not seceding from the Soviet Union but restoring independence established in 1918. However, the Soviet central government continued to consider Latvia a republic of the USSR during the transitional period.

In January 1991, Soviet military forces attempted to reassert control, leading to clashes with Latvian demonstrators who successfully defended strategic locations. On March 3, 1991, 73% of Latvian residents voted in favor of independence in a non-binding referendum, with significant support even from the ethnic Russian population.

After the failed Soviet coup in August 1991, Latvia took decisive steps. On August 21, 1991, the transitional period ended, and full independence was restored. On September 6, 1991, the Soviet Union formally recognized Latvia’s sovereignty. Latvia maintained that it was the legal continuation of the pre-war Republic of Latvia and rejected any legal connection with the Latvian SSR, which had been occupied from 1940 to 1991.

Following independence, Soviet institutions were dismantled, the Communist Party was banned, and some former officials faced prosecution for human rights violations.

Following the restoration of independence, Latvia rejoined the United Nations and reconnected with international institutions. In 1992, it became eligible for the International Monetary Fund, and by 1994, Latvia joined NATO’s Partnership for Peace program and signed a free trade agreement with the European Union. Latvia also became a member of the European Council and was the first Baltic nation to join the World Trade Organization.

In 1999, the European Union invited Latvia to begin accession talks. By 2004, Latvia achieved two key foreign policy goals: joining NATO on April 2 and the European Union on May 1, with 67% of voters supporting EU membership in a 2003 referendum. Latvia later joined the Schengen Area on December 21, 2007, further integrating with Europe. Latvia adopted the euro on January 1, 2014, becoming part of the Eurozone.