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The Nara period, 710–794 CE,[30] marked a pivotal time in Japanese history, characterized by the establishment of a permanent capital, significant cultural developments, and the expansion of Buddhism. This period began when Empress Genmei moved the capital to Heijō-kyō, present-day Nara, creating Japan's first true urban center.
The Establishment of Nara and Governmental Developments
Empress Genmei’s establishment of Heijō-kyō in 710 signified a move towards a more centralized and organized state. Modeled after Chang'an, the capital of Tang dynasty[31] of China, Nara became the heart of Japanese political, cultural, and religious life, and soon grew into a thriving city with a population of around 200,000, making up nearly 7% of Japan’s total population. It was a period of increasing administrative activity, marked by the development of infrastructure, such as roads linking Nara to provincial capitals, which facilitated the collection of taxes and communication across the empire.

Gokishichidō ("five provinces and seven circuits") was the name for ancient administrative units organized in Japan during the Asuka period (AD 538–710). Artanisen
During this time, the Taihō Code and later the Yōrō Code (720) were implemented, further consolidating the ritsuryō system—a legal and administrative framework that had its origins in earlier Chinese models. This system allowed for a more structured governance but also led to challenges in managing land distribution. By the mid-eighth century, the growth of large landed estates, known as shōen, began to erode the centralized control of land and resources. As smaller farmers struggled with rising taxes, many abandoned their land, which often fell under the control of these estates.
Factional Struggles and the Rise of the Fujiwara Clan
The Nara period witnessed intense factional fighting within the imperial court, involving members of the imperial family, powerful noble families, and Buddhist priests. The Fujiwara clan emerged as one of the most influential families during this time, wielding significant power at court. After the death of Fujiwara no Fuhito, his sons—Muchimaro, Umakai, Fusasaki, and Maro—took control and supported Emperor Shōmu, the son-in-law of Fuhito. However, the Fujiwara dominance was temporarily disrupted by a smallpox epidemic in 735, which resulted in the deaths of all four brothers.
Prince Nagaya attempted to seize power during this brief period of instability, but the Fujiwara regained their influence and had him removed in 729. Later, in 740, a member of the Fujiwara clan, Hirotsugu, led a rebellion from Kyushu. Although the rebellion was suppressed, these events shocked Emperor Shōmu and led to the temporary relocation of the capital multiple times, before ultimately returning to Nara.
By the late Nara period, financial pressures on the state resulted in the dismissal of nonessential officials, and a decentralization of power occurred, with district heads establishing private militias for local law enforcement. This gradual decline in centralized control set the stage for the later move of the capital to Nagaoka-kyō in 784 and eventually to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto) in 794, marking the end of the Nara period.
Cultural Flourishing and the Rise of Japanese Literature
The Nara period was a time of significant literary development, marked by the creation of some of Japan's earliest and most important texts. The imperial court's efforts to document Japan’s history produced the *Kojiki* (712) and *Nihon Shoki* (720), which served as foundational chronicles that legitimized imperial rule. These works, written in Chinese characters, were used to assert the divine origins and supremacy of the emperors.
Poetry also began to flourish, most notably with the compilation of the Man'yōshū, the largest and longest-lasting collection of containing poems composed between 600 and 759 CE[33 ]. This anthology used a writing system called *man'yōgana*, which employed Chinese characters to represent Japanese sounds, reflecting the period's linguistic and cultural evolution.
Buddhism's Integration into Japanese Society
Buddhism reached new heights during the Nara period, with Emperor Shōmu playing a pivotal role in its spread. Shōmu, along with his Fujiwara consort, embraced Buddhism and sought to make it the "guardian of the state." He ordered the construction of the Tōdai-ji temple in Nara, which housed the Great Buddha (Daibutsu), a massive gilt-bronze statue that represented the power and influence of Buddhism in Japan. Shōmu's declaration of himself as the "Servant of the Three Treasures" (the Buddha, the teachings, and the monastic community) demonstrated the deep integration of Buddhism into state affairs.
To further promote Buddhism, provincial temples known as kokubunji were established across Japan, with Tōdai-ji serving as the central temple of Yamato Province. This effort, while not fully making Buddhism a state religion, greatly enhanced its status and influence. Empress Kōken (later Empress Shōtoku) continued this trend, commissioning the printing of one million prayer charms (*Hyakumantō Darani*), some of the world's earliest printed works, to appease Buddhist clergy.
The growing influence of Buddhist priests in political matters became evident when Empress Kōken favored a Buddhist monk named Dōkyō. This involvement of Buddhist figures in politics caused unease among the aristocracy, and when Kōken died, her actions led to a decision to exclude women from the imperial succession and to limit the political influence of Buddhist clergy.
International Relations and Diplomatic Exchanges
The Nara court actively engaged in diplomatic relations, particularly with Tang China, by sending envoys known as *kentōshi* to the Chinese court every twenty years. Japanese students and Buddhist priests traveled to study in China, with some, like Abe no Nakamaro, even passing the Chinese civil service examinations and serving in Chinese administrative roles. However, despite these exchanges, Japan maintained its sovereignty and did not seek investiture from the Chinese emperor.
Relations with Korea were more complex. The rise of the kingdom of Balhae in the north disrupted Japan's ties with the kingdom of Silla, which had initially been peaceful. Balhae sent its first mission to Japan in 728, and Japan welcomed them as successors to Goguryeo, with whom they had maintained close ties before Silla’s unification of Korea.
Meanwhile, the Hayato people of southern Kyushu, believed to be of Austronesian origin, resisted imperial rule during the Nara period but were eventually subdued by the central government.