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The Muromachi period (1336–1573 CE), also known as the Ashikaga period, marked a time of both political turmoil and cultural flourishing in Japan. Governed by the Ashikaga Shogunate, the period began when Ashikaga Takauji established his military government in Kyoto following the brief Kenmu Restoration (1333–1336), which attempted to restore imperial rule. Despite political instability, the Muromachi period saw significant cultural developments, economic growth, and the rise of new religious and artistic traditions.
Establishment and Early Years of the Ashikaga Shogunate
In 1333, Emperor Go-Daigo initiated a revolt to reclaim authority for the imperial court. He initially had the support of General Ashikaga Takauji, but their alliance fell apart when Go-Daigo refused to appoint Takauji shōgun. Takauji turned against the Emperor in 1338, seizing Kyoto and installing a rival, Emperor Kōmyō, who appointed him shogun.[45] Go-Daigo escaped to Yoshino, setting up a rival Southern Court and starting a long conflict with the Northern Court established by Takauji in Kyoto.[46] The Shogunate faced ongoing challenges from regional lords, called daimyōs, who grew increasingly autonomous.
The Muromachi period began with Ashikaga Takauji’s victory over Emperor Go-Daigo in 1336, following Go-Daigo's failed attempt to restore imperial power. Takauji declared himself shōgun in 1338 and established his government in Kyoto, creating what became known as the Muromachi bakufu (military government). Unlike the Kamakura shogunate, which shared power with the imperial court, the Ashikaga shogunate sought to dominate the imperial government, even though it faced considerable challenges in maintaining centralized authority.
The first few decades of the Ashikaga shogunate were marked by civil war and conflict between the Northern and Southern Courts, a period known as the Nanboku-chō (1336–1392). Emperor Go-Daigo and his supporters established the Southern Court in Yoshino, while the Ashikaga-backed Northern Court remained in Kyoto. This conflict continued until 1392, when the third Ashikaga shōgun, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, succeeded in reuniting the two courts, although the Northern Court continued to maintain control over the imperial throne.
Height of Ashikaga Power under Yoshimitsu
Ashikaga Yoshimitsu's rule (1368–1394 as shōgun and 1394–1408 as chancellor) represented the height of the Ashikaga shogunate’s power. Yoshimitsu managed to bring a semblance of order and stability to the country, reestablishing the authority of the shogunate and enhancing trade relations with Ming China. In 1401, he reopened trade with the Ming dynasty, sending tribute missions and establishing a profitable exchange of goods, including Japanese swords, copper, and sulfur, for Chinese silk, porcelain, and other luxury items. While the Chinese viewed this as a tributary relationship, the Japanese regarded it as mutually beneficial trade.
Yoshimitsu also allowed the shugo (military governors) to consolidate power in the provinces, leading to the rise of powerful regional warlords known as daimyō. This decentralization allowed the Ashikaga shogunate to maintain a delicate balance of power between itself and the increasingly independent daimyō, but it also sowed the seeds for future instability.
Ōnin War and the Beginning of the Sengoku Period
Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, Takauji's grandson, took power in 1368 and was the most successful in consolidating shogunate power. He ended the civil war between the Northern and Southern Courts in 1392. However, by 1467, Japan entered another tumultuous period with the Ōnin War, which originated from a succession dispute. The country fragmented into hundreds of independent states ruled by daimyōs, effectively diminishing the shogun's power.[47] Daimyōs battled each other to seize control over different parts of Japan.[48] Two of the most formidable daimyōs of this time were Uesugi Kenshin and Takeda Shingen.[49] Not just the daimyōs, but also insurrectionist peasants and "warrior monks" linked to Buddhist temples took up arms, forming their own military forces.[50]

Battle of Okehazama (Left Oda Nobunaga) during the Sengoku Period, 1560 CE. @ Angus McBride
During this Warring States period, the first Europeans, Portuguese traders, arrived in Japan in 1543,[51] introducing firearms and Christianity.[52] By 1556, daimyōs were using about 300,000 muskets,[53] and Christianity gained a significant following. Portuguese trade was initially welcomed, and cities like Nagasaki became bustling trade hubs under the protection of daimyōs who had converted to Christianity. The warlord Oda Nobunaga capitalized on European technology to gain power, initiating the Azuchi–Momoyama period in 1573.
Economic and Cultural Developments
Despite the internal conflicts, Japan experienced economic prosperity that started during the Kamakura period. By 1450, Japan's population reached ten million,[41] and commerce flourished, including significant trade with China and Korea.[54] The proliferation of merchant and artisan guilds, along with increased agricultural production, led to economic prosperity in certain regions. The frequent movement of armies, while disruptive, also stimulated transportation and communication networks, facilitating trade across the country.
The Muromachi period was a cultural renaissance in Japan, heavily influenced by Zen Buddhism, which permeated the arts, literature, and architecture. Ashikaga Yoshimitsu and his successors were great patrons of the arts, and their support led to the development of Muromachi culture, characterized by simplicity, naturalism, and an appreciation for the impermanent beauty of the world.
Zen Buddhism and the Arts
The era also saw the development of iconic Japanese art forms like ink wash painting, ikebana, bonsai, Noh theather, and the tea ceremony.[55] Although plagued by ineffective leadership, the period was culturally rich, with landmarks like Kyoto's Kinkaku-ji, the "Temple of the Golden Pavilion," being built in 1397.[56 ]Zen Buddhism played a central role in shaping the culture of the Muromachi period. Zen monasteries became centers of cultural activity, and their teachings encouraged a focus on meditation, austerity, and harmony with nature.
The Higashiyama culture, promoted by the eighth shōgun, Ashikaga Yoshimasa, in the late 15th century, epitomized the aesthetic ideals of this era. Yoshimasa, who retired to his villa in the eastern hills of Kyoto, transformed it into the Ginkaku-ji (Silver Pavilion), a temple that became a center for the development of arts such as ikebana (flower arranging), chanoyu (tea ceremony), and sumi-e painting. These arts emphasized the principles of wabi-sabi, an aesthetic valuing simplicity, imperfection, and the beauty of natural aging.
Education and Confucianism
Confucianism gained prominence during the Muromachi period, especially among the daimyō and samurai class, who began to see it as essential for governance and personal conduct. The Ashikaga Gakko, a Confucian academy in eastern Japan, was revived and became an important center of learning, attracting scholars and students from across the country.
There was also a notable rise in literacy, even among the commoner class. Textbooks such as Teikin Orai, Joe-shikimoku, and Jitsugokyo were widely used for the education of children in reading, writing, and arithmetic, reflecting the growing importance of education in society.
Western Influence and the Arrival of Christianity
The latter part of the Muromachi period witnessed the first contact with Europeans. Portuguese traders arrived in 1543, bringing firearms, clocks, glassware, and other Western goods. The Portuguese also introduced Christianity to Japan, and in 1549, the Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier arrived, initiating the spread of the new faith. Within a few decades, there were an estimated 150,000 Christian converts, including some daimyō who saw potential alliances and trade opportunities with European powers.

Tanegashima was a type of matchlock-configured arquebus firearm introduced to Japan through the Portuguese Empire in 1543. @ HistoryMaps
The introduction of firearms had a profound impact on warfare in Japan, as daimyō quickly adopted muskets and cannons, which altered military tactics and made battles more destructive.
Decline of the Ashikaga Shogunate and the Rise of Oda Nobunaga
The weakening of the Ashikaga shogunate continued into the mid-16th century. By 1568, the powerful warlord Oda Nobunaga marched on Kyoto, effectively bringing an end to the authority of the Ashikaga shogunate. In 1573, he expelled the last Ashikaga shōgun, Ashikaga Yoshiaki, from Kyoto, marking the official end of the Muromachi period. This ushered in the Azuchi–Momoyama period, characterized by the efforts of Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and later Tokugawa Ieyasu to unify Japan.