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The Kamakura period (1185–1333 CE) marked a transformative era in Japanese history, characterized by the establishment of a feudal system and the rise of the samurai class. This period began after the Genpei War, which saw the defeat of the Taira clan by the Minamoto clan, leading to the establishment of the Kamakura Shogunate by Minamoto no Yoritomo.
Establishment of the Kamakura Shogunate and the Rise of the Hōjō Clan
The Kamakura period began with the consolidation of power by Minamoto no Yoritomo following his victory in the Genpei War (1180–1185). In 1192, he was appointed Seii Taishōgun (barbarian-subduing generalissimo)[34], officially establishing the Kamakura shogunate, with its government, or bakufu, based in Kamakura. Yoritomo established a military government that operated in parallel with the imperial court in Kyoto, instituting a feudal system where loyalty and landholding formed the basis of power. The shogunate ruled as the de facto government of Japan but kept Kyoto as the official capital. This collaborative arrangement of power was different from the "simple warrior rule" that would be characteristic of the later Muromachi period.[35]
Shōgun Minamoto no Yoritomo, founder of the Kamakura shogunate. @ Fujiwara no Takanobu
Yoritomo set up an administrative structure that included the Mandokoro (administrative board), the Samurai-dokoro (board of retainers), and the Monchūjo (board of inquiry). He appointed jitō (land stewards) to oversee land management and shugo (military governors) to maintain law and order in the provinces, further entrenching the samurai's role as the ruling military class.
Yoritomo was suspicious of his brother Yoshitsune, who sought refuge in northern Honshu and was under the protection of Fujiwara no Hidehira. After Hidehira's death in 1189, his successor Yasuhira attacked Yoshitsune in a bid to win Yoritomo's favor. Yoshitsune was killed, and Yoritomo subsequently conquered the territories controlled by the Northern Fujiwara clan.[35] Yoritomo's death in 1199 led to a decline in the office of the shogun and the rise in power of his wife Hōjō Masako and her father Hōjō Tokimasa. Hōjō Tokimasa, the head of the clan, established the position of Shikken (regent), a role that effectively governed on behalf of the shogun, who became a figurehead. By 1203, the Minamoto shoguns had effectively become puppets under the Hōjō regents.[36. ]Under the Hōjō, the shogunate transitioned into a hereditary regency, with the Hōjō clan exercising real power behind the scenes.
The Kamakura regime was feudalistic and decentralized, contrasting with the earlier centralized ritsuryō state. Yoritomo selected provincial governors, known as shugo or jitō,[37] from his close vassals, the gokenin. These vassals were allowed to maintain their own armies and administer their provinces autonomously.[38]
Jōkyū War and the Hōjō Regency’s Ascendancy
In 1221, the cloistered Emperor Go-Toba attempted to overthrow the Kamakura shogunate, leading to the Jōkyū War. Hōjō Yoshitoki, the second Hōjō regent, responded swiftly, and the shogunate forces decisively defeated Go-Toba’s army. This victory solidified the power of the Kamakura shogunate and led to the imperial court’s subjugation under the military government. The court in Kyoto was stripped of political power and required to seek Kamakura’s approval for all significant actions, marking a turning point where the samurai class firmly established its dominance over the aristocracy.
During this time, the Hōjō clan introduced significant administrative reforms, most notably the establishment of the Council of State (Hyōjōshū) in 1225, which allowed other military lords to participate in governance. In 1232, the Hōjō regency enacted the Goseibai Shikimoku, Japan's first military code of law. This code emphasized the duties of jitō and shugo, land dispute resolution, and inheritance rules, marking a shift from the older Confucian-based legal system to one that reflected the realities of a militarized society.
Mongol Invasions and their Impact
One of the most significant events of the Kamakura period was the Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281,[39 ]led by Kublai Khan of the Yuan dynasty. In 1268, Kublai Khan demanded that Japan become a tributary state, but the Japanese court rejected this demand, preparing for the threat instead.
The first Mongol invasion in 1274 involved a fleet of 600 ships and 23,000 troops, composed of Mongol, Han, and Korean soldiers. They landed on northern Kyūshū and fought against local Japanese forces, but a sudden typhoon struck, destroying much of the Mongol fleet and forcing a retreat. Undeterred, Kublai Khan launched a second invasion in 1281 with a much larger force. After seven weeks of intense fighting, another typhoon—referred to as the kamikaze or "divine wind"—again devastated the Mongol fleet, saving Japan from conquest.
Economic Struggles and the Decline of the Kamakura Shogunate
The aftermath of the Mongol invasions created significant economic challenges for the Kamakura shogunate. Unlike previous wars, where victorious warriors were rewarded with land, the lack of new territories following the Mongol invasions left many samurai unpaid, leading to widespread dissatisfaction and unrest. The financial strain was further exacerbated by the need to maintain coastal defenses against potential future invasions.[40]
Additionally, the practice of dividing family estates among heirs resulted in smaller landholdings over time, forcing many samurai into debt. This economic pressure contributed to an increase in lawlessness, as bands of rōnin (masterless samurai) roamed the countryside, threatening the stability of the shogunate.
Cultural and Religious Developments During the Kamakura Period
Amidst these military and political events, Japan experienced social and cultural growth starting around 1250.[42] Advances in agriculture, improved irrigation techniques, and double-cropping led to population growth and the development of rural villages. Cities grew and commerce boomed due to fewer famines and epidemics.[43] Buddhism became more accessible to the common people, with the establishment of Pure Land Buddhism by Hōnen and Nichiren Buddhism by Nichiren. Zen Buddhism also became popular among the samurai class.[44] Overall, despite the turbulent politics and military challenges, the period was one of significant growth and transformation for Japan.
Literature of the Kamakura period reflected the tumultuous nature of the times. The Tale of the Heike, an epic recounting the rise and fall of the Taira clan, conveyed themes of impermanence and the transient nature of power. Works like the Hōjōki emphasized Buddhist concepts of impermanence, while the Shin Kokin Wakashū, an anthology of poetry compiled in the early 13th century, continued the tradition of classical Japanese poetry.
Rise of the Emperor Go-Daigo and the Kenmu Restoration
By the early 14th century, the Kamakura shogunate faced challenges not only from internal strife but also from the imperial court. In an attempt to reduce tension between rival factions, the shogunate had allowed two imperial lines—the Northern and Southern Courts—to alternate on the throne. However, Emperor Go-Daigo of the Southern Court rejected this arrangement and sought to restore imperial rule. In 1331, he openly defied the shogunate, declaring his intention to overthrow it.
The conflict escalated into a civil war, and Go-Daigo found support from powerful warrior leaders, including Kusunoki Masashige, Ashikaga Takauji, and Nitta Yoshisada. In 1333, Nitta Yoshisada led a successful assault on Kamakura, resulting in the fall of the Hōjō clan and the end of the Kamakura shogunate. This victory allowed Go-Daigo to re-establish imperial rule in what became known as the Kenmu Restoration (1333–1336).[41]
Go-Daigo’s attempt to restore imperial authority proved short-lived. The warrior class, which had overthrown the Kamakura shogunate, was not interested in returning to a centralized imperial system that favored aristocrats. Ashikaga Takauji, initially an ally of Go-Daigo, turned against him and established the Ashikaga shogunate in 1336, marking the beginning of the Muromachi period (1336–1573). The ensuing struggle between the Ashikaga-backed Northern Court and Go-Daigo's Southern Court resulted in the prolonged Nanboku-chō period (1336–1392), where rival imperial courts existed.