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History of Japan

Azuchi–Momoyama Period

© David Benzal

History of Japan

Azuchi–Momoyama Period

1568 Jan 1 - 1600
Kyoto, Japan
Azuchi–Momoyama Period
Azuchi–Momoyama period is the final phase of the Sengoku Period. © David Benzal

Video

The Azuchi–Momoyama period (1568–1600 CE) represents the final phase of the Sengoku Period and was characterized by significant political unification, social change, and cultural innovation. It marked a critical transition from the chaotic, war-torn era of warring states to a more centralized and unified Japan, setting the stage for the early modern period. This era is named after the grand castles of Azuchi, built by Oda Nobunaga, and Momoyama (Fushimi Castle), constructed by Toyotomi Hideyoshi.[57]


Oda Nobunaga’s Rise and the Beginning of Unification

The Azuchi–Momoyama period began in 1568 when Oda Nobunaga, a formidable daimyō from Owari Province, entered Kyoto and installed Ashikaga Yoshiaki as the 15th Ashikaga shōgun, marking the beginning of Nobunaga’s campaign to unify Japan. However, Nobunaga did not intend to merely serve as the shōgun’s protector; instead, he aimed to overthrow the Ashikaga shogunate altogether. In 1573, he expelled Yoshiaki, ending the Ashikaga shogunate and establishing himself as the dominant power in Japan.


Map of Japan in the Azuchi-Momoyama period. @ Zakuragi

Map of Japan in the Azuchi-Momoyama period. @ Zakuragi


Nobunaga embarked on a campaign to unify Japan through military conquest and political strategy. He demonstrated exceptional military innovation, utilizing Western firearms, such as matchlock rifles, and embracing new tactics that enabled his forces to defeat even the most powerful rivals. His victory at the Battle of Nagashino in 1575 against the famed cavalry of the Takeda clan showcased the effectiveness of firearms and marked a turning point in Japanese warfare.


Nobunaga was also known for his ruthless suppression of opposition, including the destruction of Buddhist warrior monks at Mount Hiei and the Ikko-ikki sect, who resisted his authority. He supported trade and encouraged the development of free markets, known as rakuichi-rakuza, to stimulate economic growth and reduce the influence of monopolistic guilds. He was a strategic and ruthless leader who utilized modern weaponry and promoted men based on talent rather than social standing.[58] His adoption of Christianity served a dual purpose: to antagonize his Buddhist enemies and to form alliances with European arms dealers.


The Honnō-ji Incident and the Rise of Toyotomi Hideyoshi

Nobunaga's efforts towards unification received a sudden setback in 1582 when he was betrayed and killed by one of his officers, Akechi Mitsuhide. However, Mitsuhide's triumph was short-lived, as Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a former servant turned general under Nobunaga, quickly avenged his master by defeating Mitsuhide at the Battle of Yamazaki.[59] He achieved complete reunification by defeating the remaining opposition in regions like Shikoku, Kyushu, and eastern Japan.[60] Hideyoshi enacted comprehensive changes, such as confiscating swords from peasants, imposing restrictions on daimyōs, and conducting a detailed land survey. His reforms largely set the societal structure, designating cultivators as "commoners" and freeing most of Japan's slaves.[61]


Following Nobunaga’s death, Toyotomi Hideyoshi emerged as the most powerful daimyō and continued the campaign of unification. He deftly navigated political alliances and military campaigns to eliminate or subdue rivals, including Shibata Katsuie, Tokugawa Ieyasu, and the Mori clan. By 1590, Hideyoshi achieved the military reunification of Japan with his decisive victory over the Hōjō clan at the Siege of Odawara.


Toyotomi Hideyoshi's Reforms and the Consolidation of Power

This pivotal period also witnessed several administrative reforms aimed at promoting commerce and stabilizing society. Hideyoshi took measures to simplify transportation by eliminating most toll booths and checkpoints and conducted what are known as the "Taikō surveys" to assess rice production. Moreover, various laws were enacted that essentially solidified social classes and segregated them in living areas. Hideyoshi also conducted a massive "sword hunt" to disarm the populace. His reign, although short-lived, laid the foundation for the Edo Period under the Tokugawa shogunate, initiating nearly 270 years of stable rule. After unifying Japan, Hideyoshi implemented a series of reforms to consolidate his power and maintain stability:


  1. Land Surveys: Hideyoshi conducted nationwide land surveys, known as the "Taikō surveys," which measured the productivity of agricultural land in koku (a unit of rice). These surveys determined taxation and established a more systematic approach to land management.
  2. Sword Hunt (Katanagari): In 1588, Hideyoshi issued an edict forbidding peasants from owning weapons. This policy was designed to prevent uprisings, disarm potential rivals, and ensure that only the samurai class remained armed, thereby reinforcing social stratification.
  3. Class Separation: Hideyoshi implemented a strict caste system, solidifying distinctions between samurai, farmers, artisans, and merchants. This prevented upward social mobility and maintained the existing power structure.
  4. Hostage System: Hideyoshi required the families of daimyōs to reside in Osaka, ensuring their loyalty and discouraging rebellion. This system later influenced the sankin-kōtai (alternate attendance) policy implemented by the Tokugawa shogunate.
  5. Control of Trade and Christianity: Hideyoshi sought to regulate foreign trade, particularly with the Portuguese, Spanish, and Chinese. He issued red-seal permits to control and benefit from international commerce. Although he initially tolerated Christianity, Hideyoshi became wary of its potential to disrupt the social order and issued an edict in 1587 banning Christian missionaries. This led to the persecution of Christians, exemplified by the execution of the 26 Martyrs of Japan in 1597.


Invasions of Korea (1592–1598)

Hideyoshi had grand ambitions beyond Japan; he aspired to conquer China and initiated two large-scale invasions of Korea starting in 1592. These campaigns, however, ended in failure as he encountered fierce resistance from Korean and Ming Chinese troops, as well as naval campaigns led by the Korean Admiral Yi Sun-sin. Diplomatic talks between Japan, China, and Korea also reached an impasse as Hideyoshi's demands, including the division of Korea and a Chinese princess for the Japanese emperor, were rejected. The second invasion in 1597 similarly failed, and the war ended with Hideyoshi's death in 1598.[62]


Admiral Yi Sun-sin and his commanders @ Sangsoo Jeong

Admiral Yi Sun-sin and his commanders @ Sangsoo Jeong


After a period of stalemate and failed peace negotiations, Hideyoshi launched a second invasion in 1597, which also failed to achieve decisive results. The invasions drained Japan's resources and resulted in enormous loss of life. When Hideyoshi died in 1598, the Japanese forces withdrew from Korea, marking the end of his expansionist ambitions.


Battle of Sekigahara and the Rise of Tokugawa Ieyasu

After Hideyoshi's death, internal politics in Japan became increasingly volatile. He had appointed a Council of Five Elders to govern until his son, Toyotomi Hideyori, was of age. However, almost immediately after his death, factions loyal to Hideyori clashed with those supporting Tokugawa Ieyasu, a daimyō and former ally of Hideyoshi. In 1600, Ieyasu won a decisive victory at the Battle of Sekigahara, effectively ending the Toyotomi dynasty and establishing Tokugawa rule, which would last until 1868.[63]


This conflict culminated in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, where Ieyasu’s forces defeated the Toyotomi loyalists, establishing Tokugawa Ieyasu as the most powerful figure in Japan. The victory at Sekigahara effectively ended the Azuchi–Momoyama period and marked the beginning of the Tokugawa shogunate, inaugurating the Edo period.


Cultural Flourishing of the Azuchi–Momoyama Period

Despite the political and military upheaval, the Azuchi–Momoyama period was an era of remarkable cultural development, blending the vibrancy of the warrior culture with refined aesthetics.


  1. Castle Architecture: This period is noted for its grand and ornate castle construction, such as Azuchi Castle, built by Oda Nobunaga, and Momoyama Castle (Fushimi Castle), constructed by Hideyoshi. These castles were not only military fortifications but also symbols of power and opulence, often featuring elaborate designs, golden interiors, and extensive gardens.
  2. Tea Ceremony: The tea ceremony reached new heights during this period, influenced by the tea master Sen no Rikyū. The principles of wabi-sabi (aesthetic appreciation of simplicity and imperfection) were incorporated, and the ceremony became a significant cultural practice among the samurai and merchant classes.
  3. Namban Art and Trade: The arrival of European traders and missionaries introduced new artistic elements, leading to the development of Namban ("Southern Barbarian") art, which depicted European figures, themes, and styles. Japan began importing Western firearms, textiles, and goods, while Japanese products such as lacquerware were exported, enriching cultural exchanges.
  4. Kabuki Theater: The Azuchi–Momoyama period saw the emergence of kabuki, a lively and dramatic form of theater that combined dance, drama, and music. This form of entertainment would become a central aspect of Japanese culture in later periods.
  5. Decorative Arts: Lavish and vibrant decorative arts flourished, with gold-leaf screens, lacquerware, and elaborate folding screens becoming popular. The era's art is characterized by bold colors, dynamic compositions, and a sense of grandeur, reflecting the ambitions and power of its leaders.
Page Last Updated: 10/13/2024

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