The ancient history of Estonia spans from around the 8th millennium BCE to the early 13th century, culminating with the conquest of local Finnic tribes during the Northern Crusades. Estonia’s earliest human settlements emerged following the last glacial period, with the Kunda culture being the first significant cultural group to leave its mark. The oldest known settlement is Pulli, dated to around 9000 BCE, located near the Pärnu River in southwestern Estonia. Kunda culture, named after a settlement site in northern Estonia, utilized stone and bone tools, with flint and quartz being the materials of choice. Artifacts linked to Kunda culture have been found throughout Estonia and surrounding regions, showing a widespread cultural influence.
As the Neolithic period began around the 5th millennium BCE, the Narva culture introduced ceramics, marking a shift in lifestyle. These early pottery pieces were thick and made from clay mixed with various organic materials. Stone and bone tools from this era show similarities to those from the earlier Kunda culture, indicating a continuation of some traditions. The Narva ceramics were found mostly along the Estonian coast and islands.
By the mid-4th millennium BCE, the Comb Ceramic culture emerged, characterized by intricate pottery and animal figures made from bone and amber. This culture spanned a broad region, including parts of Finland, Russia, and the Baltics. While initially linked to the arrival of the Baltic Finns, more recent scholarship suggests that the artifacts reflect cultural or economic shifts rather than definitive ethnic migrations. Some even propose that Uralic languages, the family to which Estonian belongs, may have been spoken in the region since the end of the last glacial era.
The Late Neolithic, starting around 2200 BCE, saw the rise of the Corded Ware culture, known for its distinctive pottery and polished stone axes. Evidence of agriculture began to appear during this period, with the discovery of charred grains and attempts at domesticating wild boar. Burial practices from this era involved placing the deceased in a fetal position, with grave goods often made from domesticated animal bones.