The Great Famine of Estonia (1695–1697) was a devastating period in which about one-fifth of the population in Estonia and Livonia—around 70,000 to 75,000 people—died due to widespread starvation. The famine was triggered by a combination of harsh climate conditions during the Little Ice Age, with cold, rainy summers and early frosts destroying crops over several consecutive years.
In 1695, incessant rain from June to September ruined crops and hay, while an early autumn frost further damaged what little could be harvested. The following winter of 1695–96 was exceptionally cold, and when spring arrived, the planting season was delayed. That summer brought more heavy rains, leading to crop failures, with yields as low as 3% in some areas. By late 1696, many people were destitute, and the famine had taken full hold by autumn, resulting in a high death toll, especially among peasants, orphans, and the elderly. Corpses were left unburied due to the severe winter.
Estonia and Livonia were key grain suppliers to the Swedish Empire, and despite the famine, large quantities of grain continued to be exported to Sweden and Finland. The Swedish government did not relax these export policies until 1697, by which time the famine had already claimed many lives. The scarcity of salt, essential for preserving food, exacerbated the crisis as Portugal, the main supplier of salt, experienced its own climate-related issues.
The famine had significant political consequences. Peter the Great of Russia later cited the Swedish neglect of the provinces, including inadequate provisioning for his retinue during the famine, as one of the pretexts for the Great Northern War (1700–1721), which ultimately led to Russian dominance over the region.