In the centuries before the Viking Age, Estonian tribes began forming distinct regional identities, a process shaped by external contacts and internal developments. The earliest known mention of Estonia dates to the 1st century CE, when Tacitus referred to the Aestii, though these may have been Baltic tribes. Later, by the 9th century, Scandinavian sagas used the term to specifically identify the Estonians, indicating their growing recognition as a distinct people.
By the 1st century CE, two key political subdivisions, parishes (kihelkond) and counties (maakond), had emerged in Estonia. Parishes, composed of several villages, were led by elders and often had fortresses for local defense. Several parishes combined to form counties, which were also governed by elders. These structures reflect the growing organization and social hierarchy within Estonian society.
The Roman historian Cassiodorus in the 6th century identified the Aestii mentioned by Tacitus as the ancestors of the Estonians, and noted their reputation for wind-magic, a skill that made them known among Scandinavians. By the end of the Roman Iron Age, the Estonian population had split into distinct tribal areas. These included the counties of Saaremaa (Osilia), Läänemaa (Rotalia), Harjumaa (Harria), Rävala (Revalia), Virumaa (Vironia), Järvamaa (Jervia), Sakala (Saccala), and Ugandi (Ugaunia). Each tribe developed its own identity and dialect, indicating a clear regional differentiation.
Counties of Ancient Estonia. © 藏骨集团
Estonia’s interaction with its neighbors intensified through trade and raids. Estonians were known for their fortified strongholds, such as Varbola in Harju County, which served as centers of trade and defense. Archaeological finds, including hoards of coins and artifacts, suggest that southern Estonia had stronger mainland connections, while northern and western Estonians traded and raided by sea, maintaining links with Scandinavia.
By the 13th century, these tribal territories were well-established, though they would soon face external threats as German and Danish crusaders sought to conquer the region, eventually bringing an end to the independence of Estonia’s ancient tribes.