After Sweden's defeat by Russia in the Great Northern War (1700–1721), Estonia and Livonia were formally ceded to Russian control by the Treaty of Nystad in 1721. Although Russian rule was imposed, much of the social, legal, and cultural structure remained under the influence of the Baltic German minority. German was the dominant language in local governance, education, and the Lutheran Church, while the majority of the Estonian population were Lutheran farmers.
During the 18th century, Protestant missionary movements, like the Moravian Church, played a role in religious life, though they faced opposition and were banned for two decades. The University of Dorpat (Tartu), founded in the 17th century, became a hub of intellectual activity, with German professors leading theological studies. However, Estonians themselves had limited access to higher positions within the church or government due to the dominance of the Baltic Germans.
In 1819, the Baltic provinces were the first in the Russian Empire to abolish serfdom, which allowed Estonian peasants greater economic freedom. This marked a shift in the social structure, enabling many Estonian farmers to rent or purchase land. Additionally, many Estonians migrated to urban centers, laying the groundwork for the development of a stronger national identity.
By the mid-19th century, Estonia was swept up in the broader European currents of national awakening. Estonians began to express cultural and nationalistic sentiments, partly as a reaction to the continued dominance of the Baltic German elite and the Russification policies of the late 19th century, which were largely resisted by both Estonian nationalists and the multicultural community at Tartu University.