The earliest evidence of modern humans (Homo sapiens) in Austria comes from the Upper Paleolithic, around 40,000 years ago. Notable finds concentrate in the Wachau region of Lower Austria, where two famous figurines were discovered. The Venus of Galgenberg, dated to about 32,000 years ago, and the Venus of Willendorf, from 26,000 years ago, are among Europe’s oldest known works of art. In 2005, a 27,000-year-old double infant burial from the Gravettian culture was found near Krems, offering rare insight into early human rituals.

During the Mesolithic, populations adapted to a hunter-gatherer lifestyle in areas such as the Alpine Rhine Valley and Lake Constance, using microlithic tools. These people began the gradual transition to farming and settled life.

The Neolithic era saw the establishment of agriculture and permanent settlements. The Linear Pottery culture spread through Lower Austria, with one of the earliest known villages found at Brunn am Gebirge. At this time, people also began extracting raw materials, as seen in Austria’s oldest mine at Mauer-Antonshöhe, in Vienna’s Liesing district.

By the Copper Age (around 3,300 BCE), human activity expanded into the Alps, and hilltop settlements became common in the east. A key figure from this era is Ötzi, the Iceman—a well-preserved mummy discovered in the Alps near the Austrian-Italian border. He lived around 3,300 BCE and provides valuable information on early human life in the region.

The Bronze Age saw an increase in mining, trade, and fortified settlements. Communities thrived by extracting and trading copper and tin, with artifacts from places like Pitten and Nußdorf ob der Traisen illustrating their wealth. The Urnfield culture, emerging toward the end of the Bronze Age, initiated salt mining in Hallstatt, which became a critical economic resource.

The Iron Age in Austria is marked by the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures, which laid the foundation for later Celtic societies in the region.

The Hallstatt culture (1200–450 BCE) evolved from the earlier Urnfield culture and is named after the type site of Hallstatt in Upper Austria, where extensive burials and salt mining operations flourished. This culture is divided into four phases: Hallstatt A and B (Late Bronze Age) and Hallstatt C and D (Early Iron Age). By the 6th century BCE, it expanded across much of Central Europe, including Austria, southern Germany, and parts of northern Italy.

The Hallstatt economy was based on agriculture, metalworking, and long-range trade with Mediterranean cultures, evident from luxury imports such as Greek pottery and Etruscan goods. Salt, mined at Hallstatt, was a critical resource, creating wealth for the region. Hilltop settlements like Burgstallkogel served as centers of trade and governance, with burial sites containing elaborate grave goods, including chariots and weapons, indicating the emergence of a warrior elite. However, by the 5th century BCE, many key Hallstatt centers were abandoned, likely due to social upheaval.

Hallstatt (800 BCE: solid yellow; 500 BCE: light yellow) and La Tène (450 BCE: solid green; 50 BCE light green). © Dbachmann

The La Tène culture (450 BCE–c. 15 BCE) followed the Hallstatt period and spread widely across Central Europe, introducing what is now recognized as Celtic culture. In Austria, this culture fostered fortified hilltop settlements and iron production, especially in Styria and Burgenland, where Noric iron became a highly valued export to the Romans. The Taurisci and other Celtic tribes dominated the region, forming the Noricum confederation, which played a significant role in regional trade and diplomacy.

By the 1st century BCE, Noricum’s strategic importance attracted Roman interest, leading to the establishment of trading posts like Magdalensberg, which later evolved into Roman towns such as Virunum. This period of Celtic dominance ended when Rome annexed Noricum, integrating it into the Roman Empire around 15 BCE.

Around 15 BCE, most of what is now Austria was annexed into the Roman Empire, marking the start of "Austria Romana," a period that lasted about 500 years. The area became part of the province of Noricum, which had previously been a trade partner and military ally of Rome. Under Emperor Claudius (41–54 CE), Noricum’s borders followed natural landmarks like the Danube River and the Vienna Woods. Later, Emperor Diocletian (284–305 CE) divided the province into Noricum ripense (north) and Noricum Mediterraneum (south). To the west lay Raetia (covering Tyrol and Vorarlberg), and to the east lay Pannonia (including today’s Burgenland).

The Roman empire in the time of Hadrian (ruled 117–138 AD), showing, on the upper Danube river. © Andrein

The Romans established key cities in the region, many of which still exist today. Vindobona (modern Vienna) served as a military camp on the Danubian frontier. Other major settlements included Juvavum (Salzburg), Brigantium (Bregenz), Valdidena (Innsbruck), and administrative centers like Virunum and Teurnia. Roman infrastructure, including roads and trade networks, linked these towns and contributed to regional prosperity.

The Danube limes—a fortified boundary—protected the empire from Germanic tribes such as the Marcomanni and Quadi. Archaeological remains from the period, including settlements at Magdalensberg and Kleinklein, reflect the cultural integration of Roman practices.

Christianity began spreading into Austria by the 2nd century, with organized church structures emerging by the 4th century. After the fall of Roman authority, missionary efforts intensified, especially through figures like Saint Rupert and Saint Virgil, who played a key role in converting the region after the Bavarii’s arrival.

The Migration Period (300–500 CE) marked the end of Roman control in Austria and the beginning of significant upheaval as various tribes moved across Europe. Roman provinces like Noricum, Raetia, and Pannonia were increasingly unable to defend themselves against these invasions.

In 405 CE, the region was overrun by the army of the Gothic leader Radagaisus, and by 408 CE, the Visigoths under Alaric I passed through Noricum, staging operations from Virunum before later sacking Rome in 410. Though the Visigoths moved on, the area faced ongoing instability, including a brief incursion by the Huns in 451 CE. The death of Attila in 453 CE triggered the fragmentation of his empire, allowing new groups like the Rugii to establish independent territories along the Danube (Rugiland).

Routes of Barbarian invasions, 100–500. © MapMaster

From 472 CE, invasions by the Ostrogoths and Alamanni further eroded Roman authority, although remnants of the Roman administration persisted. Notably, figures like Severinus of Noricum attempted to maintain some order. However, by 476 CE, with the fall of the last Western Roman emperor, Roman influence collapsed. The final abandonment of Noricum came in 488 CE, while Raetia fell to the Alamanni.

By 493 CE, the region became part of the Ostrogothic Kingdom under Theodoric the Great, marking the transition from Roman to barbarian rule. After Theodoric’s death in 526 CE, the Ostrogothic realm began to unravel, completing the transformation of Austria from a Roman frontier to part of the early medieval world.

During the second phase of the Migration Period (500–700 CE), new groups shaped the future of Austria. Around 500 CE, the Lombards briefly appeared in northern and eastern regions but were pushed south into Italy by 567 when the Avars advanced into the region, bringing with them Slavic vassals. The Avars established dominance from the Baltic to the Balkans, but their defeat near Constantinople in 626 spurred Slavic revolts and the creation of independent Slavic territories.

One of the most significant Slavic groups was the Carantanians (Alpine Slavs), who migrated westward along the Drava River, mixing with the local Celto-Romanic population. They established Carantania, the first independent Slavic state in Europe, centered at Zollfeld (modern Carinthia). By the 7th century, the Carantanians had resisted Avar control and defended themselves from neighboring Frankish incursions. However, in 745 CE, under pressure from both Avars and Franks, Carantania became a vassal of Bavaria and was eventually absorbed into the Carolingian Empire.

Meanwhile, in the west, the Bavarii (Bavarians), a Germanic tribe and vassals of the Franks, began to consolidate power. By 550 CE, the Bavarians had formed a stem duchy under the Agilolfing dynasty with its center at Regensburg, expanding their territory into what is now western Austria and South Tyrol. They mixed with the Rhaeto-Romanic population, pushing them further into the mountains. Bavarian migration reached as far as the Puster Valley and later extended to the Enns River by 610 CE.

By 650 CE, the Slavs had advanced westward but halted further Bavarian expansion. A settlement boundary between the two groups emerged, stretching from Freistadt through Linz and Salzburg to East Tyrol. The Avars and Slavs occupied the eastern regions of Austria and parts of modern Bohemia. Over time, Bavarian settlers moved down the Danube and into Alpine valleys, laying the foundation for Austria’s future as a German-speaking region. However, in southern Carinthia, the Slavs maintained their language and identity until the early 20th century, when assimilation reduced them to a minority population.

During the Early Middle Ages (8th–10th centuries), Austria’s territory was part of the Duchy of Bavaria, a region that shifted between independence and control by the Frankish Empire. Initially, the Bavarians achieved brief independence by 717 CE, but were soon subdued by Charles Martel. In 788 CE, Charlemagne deposed the last Agilolfing duke, Tassilo III, bringing Bavaria and its territories under direct Carolingian control.

Charlemagne’s campaigns against the Avars in 791–803 CE expanded Frankish influence eastward. The Avars retreated beyond the Fischa and Leitha rivers, allowing Charlemagne to establish defensive marches (military borderlands) from the Danube to the Adriatic Sea. Among these was the Avar March, located in what is now Lower Austria, and the March of Carinthia to the south. Both became part of the Marcha orientalis (Eastern March), a frontier region of Bavaria.

By 805 CE, with Charlemagne’s permission, the remaining Avars settled southeast of Vienna. However, a new threat emerged in 862 CE with the arrival of the Magyars, who had migrated westward after being displaced from the steppes. By 896 CE, they occupied the Hungarian Plain and began frequent raids into Bavarian and Frankish territories. In 907 CE, the Hungarians dealt a decisive defeat to the Bavarians at the Battle of Pressburg, forcing them to retreat to the Enns River by 909 CE.

Bavaria became a margraviate under Engeldeo (890–895) and was briefly reunited with Carinthia under Arnulf the Bad (907–937). However, his son Eberhard was deposed by Otto I (the future Holy Roman Emperor) in 938 CE. Under Otto I’s leadership, the Hungarians were defeated at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955, ending their raids and beginning the gradual reconquest of eastern territories, including Istria and Carniola.

Otto I reorganized his empire, reducing Bavaria’s size by re-establishing the Duchy of Carinthia. To the east, he created a new Eastern March (Ostmark), which would later become Austria. In 976 CE, Otto I appointed Leopold I of the Babenberg dynasty to rule this new march. Leopold, known as Leopold the Illustrious, governed from 976 to 994 CE, laying the foundation for what would eventually evolve into the Austrian state.

After Otto I’s victory over the Magyars at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 CE, the way was cleared for Germanic expansion into the eastern frontier, leading to the creation of system of military borderlands, including the Avar March along the Danube. Around 970 CE, the region between the Enns River and the Vienna Woods was organized as the Marcha orientalis (Eastern March). The earliest known margrave was Burkhard, but in 976 CE, Otto I restructured the area and appointed Leopold I of the Babenberg dynasty to govern the Eastern March. The Babenbergs would rule Austria for nearly two centuries, shaping its identity and expanding its influence.

Role of the Margraviate

The Margraviate of Austria served as a defensive frontier against Hungary and other eastern threats. The Babenbergs initially ruled from Pöchlarn and later Melk, focusing on consolidating power, founding towns, and promoting Christianity through monasteries. The Babenbergs also expanded eastward along the Danube, reaching Vienna by 1002. However, their expansion was halted by King Stephen of Hungary in 1030 CE, establishing the eastern boundary of Austria.

The Holy Roman Empire in the 10th century showing Bavarian marches, including Carinthia. © Anonymous

Challenges and Consolidation (11th–12th centuries)

Throughout the 11th century, Austria remained under the shadow of Bavaria, struggling to assert autonomy. The Babenbergs navigated shifting alliances between the Holy Roman Emperors and the papacy, particularly during the Investiture Dispute. Leopold II 'The Fair' briefly lost his position after siding with the papacy against Emperor Henry IV, but the family’s fortunes improved under Leopold III 'The Good'. He allied with Henry V, the rebellious son of Henry IV, securing Austria’s ties with the imperial family through marriage to Agnes von Waiblingen. Leopold III’s efforts to stabilize the region and his monastic foundations earned him canonization in 1458, making him Austria’s patron saint.

Austria’s Rise to a Duchy (1139–1156)

Leopold III’s son, Leopold IV 'The Generous', further enhanced the status of Austria by also becoming Duke of Bavaria in 1139, when the Bavarian Welf dynasty was temporarily removed by Emperor Conrad III. This brief union of Austria and Bavaria boosted the Babenbergs' prestige, but when Leopold IV died in 1141, his brother Henry II (Jasomirgott) inherited both titles.

In 1156, Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, seeking to resolve internal conflicts, restored Bavaria to the Welfs. As compensation, he issued the Privilegium Minus, elevating Austria from a margraviate to a duchy. With this, Henry II Jasomirgott became the first Duke of Austria, marking a key step in Austria’s transition from a frontier march to a political entity within the Holy Roman Empire.

With the elevation of Austria to a duchy in 1156 through the Privilegium Minus, Austria became an independent dominion within the Holy Roman Empire. Henry II Jasomirgott, the first Duke of Austria, moved his residence to Vienna, laying the groundwork for the city’s importance as a political center.

Union with Styria (1186–1194)

Austria expanded under Leopold V the Virtuous (1177–1194), thanks to the Georgenberg Pact of 1186. This agreement secured the inheritance of the Duchy of Styria after the death of its childless ruler, Ottokar IV, in 1192. Styria, which had only recently become a duchy in 1180, encompassed not just present-day Styria but also parts of Upper Austria, Lower Austria, and Slovenia. With this union, Austria gained significant new territories, strengthening its political position within the empire.

Leopold V’s fame grew further when, during his return from the Third Crusade in 1192, he imprisoned Richard the Lionheart of England at Dürnstein Castle. The ransom money from Richard’s release funded many of Leopold’s projects, enhancing Austria’s infrastructure and influence.

Golden Age under Leopold VI the Glorious (1198–1230)

The peak of Babenberg power came under Leopold VI the Glorious (1198–1230). He fostered the flourishing of Gothic art and High Medieval culture in Austria, positioning the duchy as a center of learning and artistic innovation. Under his rule, the Babenbergs became one of the most powerful families in Central Europe, consolidating their holdings and enhancing the cultural prestige of Vienna.

Frederick II the Quarrelsome and the End of the Babenberg Dynasty (1230–1246)

Leopold VI’s son, Frederick II the Quarrelsome (1230–1246), inherited the duchy but faced growing internal and external challenges. In 1238, Frederick divided Austria into Upper Austria (Ob der Enns) and Lower Austria (Unter der Enns), a division still reflected in modern Austria’s regional structure. The regions around Steyr and Traungau became part of Upper Austria rather than Styria, reshaping the internal boundaries of the duchy.

Frederick’s reign was marked by efforts to stabilize his realm, including issuing a Patent of Protection for Jews in 1244, reflecting a degree of tolerance in an otherwise turbulent period. However, his ambitions brought conflict with neighboring powers, including the Kingdom of Hungary. In 1246, Frederick was killed at the Battle of the Leitha River in a clash with the Hungarians. With no heirs to succeed him, the Babenberg dynasty came to an end, leaving Austria without a ruling family and plunging the region into a period of political uncertainty known as the Interregnum.

Following the death of Frederick II the Quarrelsome in 1246 without heirs, Austria entered a period of instability known as the Interregnum. This time of competing claims and power struggles marked the end of the Babenberg dynasty and left the duchy vulnerable to foreign ambitions.

The Privilegium Minus of 1156 allowed Austria to be inherited through female lines, prompting multiple claimants to pursue the duchy. Vladislaus of Moravia, son of King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia, married Gertrud, Frederick’s niece, positioning himself as a potential successor. However, Vladislaus died in 1247 before securing control, and his claim was followed by Herman of Baden, another suitor of Gertrud, though he also failed to gain support.

In 1251, Austrian nobles, tired of the power struggle, invited Ottokar II Přemysl of Bohemia, Vladislaus' brother, to take control of Austria. Ottokar solidified his claim by marrying Margaret of Babenberg, Frederick’s sister, in 1252, connecting himself to the former ruling dynasty. He quickly subdued the rebellious Austrian nobility, taking control of Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, laying the foundation for a vast central European realm.

Ottokar’s Rule and Ambitions

Ottokar II was both a skilled administrator and a builder. He founded the Hofburg Palace in Vienna and aimed to establish a powerful new empire during the ongoing imperial interregnum that followed the death of Frederick II of the Holy Roman Empire in 1250. With the weakening of the empire, Ottokar advanced his candidacy for the imperial throne but was ultimately unsuccessful.

During this period, Austria also became a center of religious persecution, as the Inquisition targeted Waldensians and other heretical groups, especially in the Danube region between the Salzkammergut and the Vienna Woods.

Rise of Rudolf of Habsburg and Ottokar’s Downfall

In 1273, the imperial throne was filled by Rudolf of Habsburg, who was determined to consolidate imperial authority. Ottokar II refused to recognize Rudolf’s election, leading to conflict. In 1274, the Imperial Diet in Nuremberg demanded that all crown lands seized since 1250, including Austria, be returned to the empire. Ottokar resisted, holding on to Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, which he had taken during the Babenberg succession dispute.

In 1276, Rudolf declared war on Ottokar, laying siege to Vienna and forcing him to cede the disputed territories. Ottokar was allowed to retain the Kingdom of Bohemia and betroth his son, Wenceslaus II, to Rudolf’s daughter Judith of Habsburg. However, tensions persisted, and Ottokar soon sought alliances with Polish nobles and German princes, including Henry XIII of Bavaria.

Battle of the Marchfeld and the Habsburg Victory (1278)

On August 26, 1278, the decisive Battle of the Marchfeld took place northeast of Vienna. Rudolf, with support from King Ladislaus IV of Hungary, defeated and killed Ottokar II. The victory secured Rudolf’s control over Austria, Styria, and the surrounding regions.

With Ottokar’s death, the Margraviate of Moravia fell under Habsburg administration, and Ottokar’s widow, Kunigunda of Slavonia, retained only limited authority around Prague. Wenceslaus II was re-betrothed to Judith of Habsburg, ensuring peace between Bohemia and the Habsburgs.

Habsburg Dynasty Takes Root (1278–1282)

Following his victory, Rudolf of Habsburg assumed the titles of Duke of Austria and Styria, marking the beginning of over six centuries of Habsburg rule in Austria, which would last until 1918. This victory not only ended the interregnum but also laid the foundation for the Habsburgs' rise to dominance in Central Europe.

Following the Battle of the Marchfeld in 1278, Rudolf of Habsburg secured control over Austria and Styria, marking the beginning of Habsburg rule in the region. This victory ended decades of instability during the interregnum and laid the foundations for Austria’s development as a political and dynastic power within the Holy Roman Empire.

Rudolf I and the Early Habsburg Legacy (1278–1358)

Rudolf I faced resistance in consolidating Habsburg authority in Austria but ultimately succeeded by bequeathing the duchies of Austria and Styria to his sons Albert I and Rudolf II in 1282. However, disputes over succession began almost immediately. The Treaty of Rheinfelden (1283) enforced primogeniture, forcing the younger Rudolf II to cede his claims to his brother Albert I. This rivalry continued through subsequent generations, marked by frequent divisions of the Habsburg lands among family members.

Albert I briefly achieved the imperial throne in 1298 but was assassinated in 1308, and the Habsburgs struggled to maintain control over Austria and influence within the empire. In 1335, Albert II expanded Habsburg territories by acquiring Carinthia and the March of Carniola, creating the foundations of the Habsburg Hereditary Lands.

Rudolf IV and the Privilegium Maius (1358–1365)

Under Rudolf IV the Founder, the Habsburgs made significant strides in elevating Austria’s status. In 1359, Rudolf issued the Privilegium Maius, a document falsely claiming elevated status for Austria as an archduchy, placing it on par with the electors of the Holy Roman Empire. Although this claim was not recognized at the time, it symbolized the Habsburgs' growing ambitions.

Rudolf IV also fostered economic growth, founded the University of Vienna, and initiated the construction of St. Stephen’s Cathedral. His efforts cemented Vienna’s role as a political and cultural center. With his acquisition of the County of Tyrol in 1363, the Habsburg lands now extended across the Eastern Alps, forming what became known as the Hereditary Lands. However, Rudolf’s early death in 1365 left the realm divided among his brothers.

A House Divided: The Albertinian and Leopoldian Lines (1379–1457)

Following Rudolf IV’s death, his brothers Albert III and Leopold III quarreled, leading to the Treaty of Neuberg (1379), which divided the Habsburg lands. Austria (both Upper and Lower Austria) went to the Albertinian line, while Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, and Tyrol were governed by the Leopoldian line. This division weakened the Habsburgs, with multiple rulers governing fragmented territories, creating instability throughout the 14th and 15th centuries.

• Albertinian Line (1379–1457): Albert III ruled until 1395, succeeded by his son Albert IV and grandson Albert V (who became King Albert II of Germany). However, this line ended with the death of Ladislaus the Posthumous in 1457.
• Leopoldian Line (1379–1490): The Leopoldian branch split further into Inner Austria (Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola) and Further Austria (Tyrol and Vorarlberg). This division lasted until 1490, when all Habsburg lands were reunited under Maximilian I.

Inquisition and Religious Persecution

Throughout the 14th century, the Inquisition targeted heretics, particularly the Waldensians. Between 1391 and 1402, the Inquisitor Petrus Zwicker led severe persecutions in Steyr, Krems, and Vienna, with over 80 individuals burned in Steyr alone. These events are now commemorated by a monument in Steyr, erected in 1997.

Reunification and the Rise of Frederick III (1453–1493)

By the mid-15th century, the Albertinian line had gone extinct, and the fragmented Habsburg lands passed back to the Leopoldian line. Frederick V (later Frederick III) became the key figure in reuniting the Habsburg territories. Frederick became German King in 1440 and was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1452, marking the permanent ascent of the Habsburgs within the empire.

Frederick also reunited the core Austrian territories after the death of Ladislaus the Posthumous in 1457, ending the internal division between the Albertinian and Leopoldian lines. Under Frederick's reign, Austria was stabilized, and the Habsburgs emerged as one of the most powerful dynasties in Europe.

The elevation of Austria to an Archduchy in 1453 by Emperor Frederick III (also Frederick V as Duke of Austria) was a critical moment in Austrian history, cementing the Habsburgs' status among the highest-ranking nobility of the Holy Roman Empire. This elevated status—originally based on a forged document, the Privilegium Maius—solidified Habsburg claims over Austrian lands, formally establishing the principle of primogeniture and indivisibility for Austria. With Frederick's patient reign, and through consolidating the core Austrian lands, the Habsburgs were poised for more influential roles within Europe.

The dynasty’s ascent to greater power reached a decisive turning point through the marriage of Maximilian I, Frederick's son, to Mary of Burgundy in 1477. This alliance was transformative, bringing the wealthy and strategically vital Burgundian territories, including the Low Countries, under Habsburg control. This vast expansion of land not only amplified Habsburg economic resources, with Burgundy’s trade routes extending from the North Sea to the Mediterranean, but also positioned Austria as a direct rival to France, intensifying a political rivalry that would shape European history. Maximilian's successful defense of these territories after Mary’s death, particularly through the Treaty of Senlis in 1493, confirmed Habsburg control and represented a substantial diplomatic triumph.

This marriage alliance was the foundation for a dynastic strategy of empire-building that would come to define the Habsburgs’ approach to power. The motto, "Bella gerant alii, tu felix Austria nube" ("Let others wage war; you, happy Austria, marry"), epitomized this strategy of securing territories and influence across Europe through dynastic unions rather than military conquests. The alliance with Burgundy set a precedent that would bring even more European territories—like Spain, Hungary, Bohemia, and Italian lands—under Habsburg control in the following generations.

Frederick's reign, fortified by his “AEIOU” motto, represented the Habsburgs’ belief in their divine right and destiny to rule ("Alles Erdreich ist Österreich untertan" or "Austriae est imperare orbi universo"—“All the world is subject to Austria”). This transformation in the 15th century established Austria as a formidable European power, laying the groundwork for its centuries-long prominence in European politics and shaping the course of Habsburg dominance in the early modern period.

Maximilian I’s reign (1493–1519) marked a pivotal period in the Habsburg ascent as a European power, both through territorial consolidation and strategic alliances. By reuniting Austrian lands that had been divided since 1379, and through his son Philip’s marriage to Joanna of Castile, Maximilian set the stage for an empire that would span Spain, its Italian and North African territories, and its expanding empire in the Americas. This marriage alliance gave rise to the powerful Habsburg dynastic empire, embodying the motto Tu felix Austria nube ("You, Austria, marry happily") as a guiding strategy.

Beyond diplomatic alliances, Maximilian also pursued military campaigns, notably in the Italian Wars against France, as well as conflicts with Switzerland. The Swiss won their independence in 1499 after the Battle of Dornach and the Treaty of Basel, marking a significant loss for the Habsburgs, who originally hailed from Switzerland.

Domestically, Maximilian attempted reform at the 1495 Diet of Worms, establishing the Imperial Chamber Court and the Reichsregiment, a short-lived attempt at a central governing body. He modernized imperial administration but often lacked funds, relying heavily on the Fuggers and other bankers, who later helped secure his grandson Charles’s succession. Maximilian’s decision to declare himself Emperor in 1508 without a papal coronation in Rome also set a new precedent, reinforcing his autonomy and establishing a tradition of self-coronation that marked a turning point in the Holy Roman Empire’s history. Through these actions, Maximilian significantly strengthened the Habsburg legacy, setting the foundation for its reach across Europe and the globe.

The Protestant Reformation profoundly affected Austria and the wider Habsburg territories in the 16th century. Martin Luther’s 95 Theses in 1517 ignited a movement that challenged the Catholic Church’s authority, the Holy Roman Empire’s stability, and ultimately the Habsburgs’ control. Luther’s ideas spread rapidly through the German-speaking Habsburg lands, where they gained particular traction in regions of eastern Austria. Despite Emperor Charles V's efforts to suppress the movement, Protestantism became deeply embedded in many areas of Austria.

In 1521, at the Diet of Worms, Charles V formally condemned Luther, marking the beginning of Catholic resistance to Protestantism. But he was soon occupied by conflicts with France and the Ottoman Empire, temporarily halting his efforts against Protestantism. By the time Charles returned to the issue at the 1530 Diet of Augsburg, Lutheranism had taken firm root across the Holy Roman Empire. When Charles rejected the Protestant Augsburg Confession, many Protestant princes formed the Schmalkaldic League in 1531, a Protestant alliance with backing from France, further deepening religious divides.

Charles's brother, Archduke Ferdinand I, who had been appointed King of the Romans in 1531 to secure a Catholic succession, confronted growing Protestant demands for religious tolerance. The pressing threat of Ottoman advances into Hungary in 1532 forced Charles to enlist Protestant support, delaying Catholic efforts against the Reformation. Despite a temporary imperial victory over Protestant forces at the Battle of Mühlberg in 1547, peace was short-lived. Protestant and French resistance led to renewed conflict, and in 1555, the Peace of Augsburg formally allowed princes within the Holy Roman Empire to choose between Lutheranism and Catholicism for their territories.

By then, Protestantism was firmly entrenched in much of Austria and other Habsburg hereditary provinces, though the Habsburg rulers themselves remained staunchly Catholic. While the Austrian heartlands and the Tyrol largely resisted Protestant influence, other provinces like Bohemia, Hungary, and parts of eastern Austria saw significant Lutheran conversion. Ferdinand I, recognizing the entrenched Protestant presence, chose to tolerate Protestantism within certain territories, balancing his Catholic commitment with political stability across his domains.

The Reformation and subsequent Peace of Augsburg left a legacy of religious pluralism in Habsburg lands, setting the stage for later Catholic Counter-Reformational efforts in Austria, as rulers sought to reinforce Catholicism in their dominions in the late 16th and early 17th centuries.

The ascension of Charles I (later Emperor Charles V) in 1519 marked an unprecedented expansion in Habsburg power, propelling Austria and the Holy Roman Empire to new levels of influence. Charles, inheriting vast territories that included Spain, the Burgundian Netherlands, and the Habsburg hereditary lands, became ruler over a realm that stretched across Europe, the Americas, and Asia. He was the first monarch to rule a united Spain, adding immense wealth and colonial possessions that were instrumental in fueling his ambition for a "universal monarchy." His empire covered four million square kilometers and his goal, reflected in his motto Plus ultra ("Still further"), was to unify Christendom under a single ruler. However, Charles's ambition was tempered by challenges, including the Protestant Reformation led by Martin Luther, the threat from the expanding Ottoman Empire, and continuous rivalry with France.

In a key move that would shape Habsburg governance, Charles ceded Austria and the German-speaking Habsburg lands to his brother Ferdinand at the Diet of Worms in 1521. This separation was strategic, allowing Charles to focus on Western Europe and the New World while Ferdinand solidified Habsburg power in Central Europe. Charles's eventual abdication in 1556 divided the Habsburg empire further: he left Spain and the Low Countries to his son Philip II, permanently separating the Spanish and Austrian Habsburg lines.

Partition of Habsburg dominions in 1556. © Barjimoa

Ferdinand I, who succeeded Charles as Holy Roman Emperor in 1558, secured his own power base through strategic marriage to Anne of Bohemia and Hungary in 1521, thereby acquiring Bohemia, Hungary, and surrounding territories after her brother's death at the Battle of Mohács in 1526. This union significantly expanded Habsburg influence in Central Europe, though the lands of Hungary were fractured due to ongoing Ottoman incursions and local resistance. Ferdinand focused on fortifying Austria’s eastern borders, dealing with religious unrest spurred by the Reformation, and creating a unified administrative system within his territories.

When Ferdinand passed in 1564, he continued the Habsburg tradition by dividing his lands among his sons. This division laid the groundwork for the distinct Habsburg branches that would influence European politics for centuries, shaping the legacy of Austria as a central power in European affairs.

The Habsburg-Ottoman conflict in the 16th century presented Austria and the Holy Roman Empire with a formidable eastern challenge. Following the division of Hungary after the Battle of Mohács in 1526, Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent launched numerous campaigns to seize control of Hungarian territories, clashing frequently with Ferdinand I and Charles V of Austria. The Habsburg rulers struggled with financial pressures, introducing the "Turkish Tax" to support Austria's defense and frequently relying on borrowed funds, often from powerful families like the Fuggers. Nonetheless, this revenue was insufficient, and Habsburg forces remained vastly outnumbered by the Ottoman military.

In 1529, Suleiman led a massive force to Vienna, resulting in a tense siege. Though the Ottomans were initially successful in reclaiming Habsburg-held territories, poor weather and the determination of Vienna's defenders ultimately forced them to withdraw. Later, in 1532, Suleiman advanced again, targeting Vienna but detouring to Kőszeg, where the city’s small garrison held its ground, forcing the Ottomans into another retreat. The Peace of Adrianople temporarily halted hostilities, although border skirmishes continued in the so-called "Little War" as both sides vied for control of Hungary.

Austria’s struggle to fund defenses highlighted Hungary’s economic importance within the Habsburg Empire. With Hungary split into Royal Hungary under Habsburg control, Ottoman Hungary, and the Principality of Transylvania, the region became a vital financial source and a persistent battleground. Despite the peace, smaller conflicts continued, with further sieges at Eger and various strongholds along the Hungarian border.

Meanwhile, in the Mediterranean, the Ottomans expanded their naval power, seizing key Christian outposts like Rhodes and challenging European naval dominance. The 1538 Battle of Preveza saw the Ottomans secure supremacy over the Holy League in the region. Charles V's later attempts to secure North Africa were met with mixed success, signaling the increasing power of the Ottoman fleet and marking a significant shift in the regional balance of power.

By the end of this period, Austria found itself locked in a precarious balance: holding Ottoman forces at bay yet unable to reclaim lost Hungarian lands fully, while managing the constant threat of Turkish incursions and financial strain. The uneasy peace would persist until the Long Turkish War of 1593, but the impact of these conflicts reshaped Austria's eastern borders, influenced its finances, and reinforced the urgency of alliances and military modernization for the Habsburgs.

After Suleiman the Magnificent’s death in 1566, his successors, starting with Selim II, posed less of a direct threat to Europe. Selim’s reign was notable for the Ottoman victory in Cyprus, but otherwise marked a weakening military focus. By the time Murad III assumed power, the Ottomans were plagued by internal issues, facing substantial resistance in Europe, including the Habsburgs in Austria. This shift would set the stage for a series of conflicts that, although ferocious, gradually tipped the balance away from Ottoman expansion and toward an Austrian resurgence.

Early Conflicts: Battle of Sisak and Renewed Warfare

In the 1590s, under the reign of Mehmed III, the Ottomans attempted to regain their footing against European forces but encountered substantial obstacles. The Austrians had technological and tactical advancements that the Ottomans struggled to match. In the Battle of Sisak in 1593, for example, Habsburg forces defeated Ottoman raiders, marking a shift in power dynamics in Croatia. Enraged, the Grand Vizier Sinan Pasha led 13,000 Janissaries into Hungarian territories, but ultimately, the Ottomans achieved little more than temporary footholds, constrained by logistical challenges and internal discord.

The Long War and Christian Resistance

The period known as the “Long Turkish War” or “Thirteen Years' War” (1593–1606) brought Austria and its Christian allies into prolonged conflict with the Ottomans. A Christian coalition, bolstered by former Ottoman vassal states like Wallachia, Moldova, and Transylvania, managed to reclaim numerous forts along the Danube River, with Wallachia’s Prince Michael the Brave capturing strategic Ottoman forts and threatening Ottoman territory as far south as Adrianople. Despite initial Ottoman victories, these battles drained the empire, whose leaders faced continuous challenges both on the front and within the Janissary corps.

At the Battle of Keresztes in 1596, the Ottomans momentarily regained control by overwhelming an Austrian relief force, but inefficiency and discontent among Ottoman soldiers—most notably the elite Janissaries—ultimately undermined the Ottomans’ ability to capitalize on victories. These encounters underscored the vulnerability of Ottoman positions in Hungary and established a precedent of repeated Austrian resistance that would weaken Ottoman control over the ensuing decades.

The Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) marked a crucial period of Habsburg ambitions and overreach, primarily under the rule of Emperor Ferdinand II (1619–1637) and later his son, Ferdinand III (1637–1657). Ferdinand II’s ascension brought a wave of fervent Catholic reform, sparking intense conflicts aimed at reversing Protestantism not only in the Habsburg hereditary lands but across the Holy Roman Empire. His rigid policies, including the 1629 Edict of Restitution, sought to restore Catholic dominance and reclaim properties lost since the 1555 Peace of Augsburg. However, these uncompromising measures escalated tensions across Europe, turning an internal conflict into a continent-wide war. 

Ferdinand’s policies led to severe backlash, notably igniting the Bohemian Revolt in 1618 and creating a polarized struggle that soon drew in Denmark, Sweden, and France on the Protestant side, each with their own interests. Early Catholic victories bolstered Ferdinand's confidence, prompting severe crackdowns such as the Frankenburg Lottery, the suppression of the Peasants' Revolt in 1626, and the devastation of Magdeburg in 1631. These harsh tactics intensified Protestant resistance and prolonged the war, ultimately compromising the Habsburg aim of reasserting control over the Empire. By 1635, internal conflicts and intervention by foreign powers made Habsburg aims of religious and political dominance impossible to realize. 

When Ferdinand II died in 1637, his son Ferdinand III, a more pragmatic leader, inherited a declining war effort. Known for his support of peace efforts, he oversaw the Peace of Prague in 1635 and, ultimately, the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. This treaty effectively ended the Thirty Years’ War, securing peace in Europe but dealing a blow to Habsburg influence. The treaty gave substantial autonomy to German states, drastically curtailing imperial power and setting a precedent for the sovereignty of European states. This shift in balance ended any realistic hope for Habsburg hegemony, diminishing the Holy Roman Emperor’s influence over central Europe.

The war left an indelible mark on the Habsburg territories. While Ferdinand II’s anti-Protestant campaigns had successfully enforced Catholicism across Austria, Bohemia, and other territories, his absolutist methods alienated subjects and led to demographic and economic decline. The destruction caused by the constant military campaigns and the relentless movement of mercenary armies devastated the population, resulting in significant loss of life—particularly in the German states, where civilian death rates may have reached 50%. The relentless foraging, food shortages, and widespread disease created lasting hardship, deepening the social and economic rifts left by the war.

After the war, Austria emerged under a strengthened Baroque Catholic monarchy that symbolized Habsburg authority and church-state unity, though at great cost. Austrian culture, language, and institutions were reshaped in a German-Catholic image, suppressing Bohemian and Czech traditions. Nevertheless, Austria faced weakened finances and demography, and this, combined with the erosion of central power within the Holy Roman Empire, prevented Austria from becoming a dominant European force, despite its strengthened hold over its own lands. The Treaty of Westphalia marked a new political landscape that would define European politics for centuries, with the Habsburgs increasingly focused on their internal domains rather than universal rule.

After the devastation of the Thirty Years’ War, Austria managed to recover economically and demographically, ushering in what would become the peak of Austrian Baroque culture. Ferdinand III, though hampered by war during his reign, was a great patron of the arts. His son, Leopold I, who took the throne in 1657, inherited a stronger Austria and continued this cultural support while facing a series of new challenges that shaped Habsburg dominance in Europe.

Leopold’s early reign brought attempts at consolidating Austria’s power over its lands, finally bringing Upper Austria (Further Austria and Tyrol) into the archduchy. However, he also found himself pulled into renewed conflict with both the Ottoman Empire and the expanding French power under Louis XIV. Although Leopold’s reign began with involvement in the Second Northern War (1655–1660) against the Swedish-backed Transylvanians, Austria would soon have to turn its attention back to the Ottoman threat. 

In 1663, the Ottoman Empire initiated a significant campaign against Austria, leading to their defeat at the Battle of Saint Gotthard in 1664. Though victorious, Leopold struck a treaty with the Ottomans that was lenient and allowed Austria to maintain a fragile peace in the east while it focused on French threats in the west, where Austria was increasingly drawn into conflicts as France gained power and influence.

Despite the reprieve from the Ottomans, tension in Hungary flared due to Leopold’s harsh Counter-Reformation measures, which alienated Hungary’s Protestant nobility and led to revolts. By the early 1680s, Leopold was dealing with Hungarian uprisings and a renewed Ottoman push into Habsburg territory, culminating in the 1683 Siege of Vienna. In an iconic victory, the combined Polish and Habsburg forces drove the Ottomans back, sparking a successful campaign that ended with the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699. This treaty finally secured Austria’s eastern borders and granted it control over Hungary, Croatia, and Transylvania, solidifying Habsburg dominance in Central Europe.

This newfound security allowed Leopold I to extend Habsburg influence westward, engaging in a prolonged contest with France. However, his domestic policies, including expelling Jews from Vienna in 1670 and enacting the Pragmatica of 1680 to regulate tenant-landlord relations, demonstrated the deep-seated conservatism that defined Austria under the Habsburgs, a contrast to the Enlightenment ideas spreading through Europe. The resulting Habsburg Empire at the turn of the 18th century emerged more unified and territorially secure than it had been in centuries, laying the groundwork for Austria’s growing role in European affairs under the Baroque era.

The Battle of Vienna on September 12, 1683, marked a major turning point in the centuries-long Habsburg-Ottoman conflicts. After a two-month siege, the battle culminated in a decisive victory for the Holy Roman Empire and its allies, most notably Poland under King John III Sobieski. This defeat would halt Ottoman expansion into Europe, leading to a gradual Habsburg reconquest of Hungary and Transylvania over the following years.

The Ottomans, commanded by Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha, had advanced with a massive army, bolstered by Hungarian rebel forces led by Imre Thököly. Although they initially posed a significant threat, logistical delays allowed Vienna's defenders to prepare, and Habsburg forces rallied an alliance with Poland, Saxony, Bavaria, and various German states. By early September, a coalition army numbering 70,000–80,000 soldiers gathered under Sobieski’s leadership, prepared to relieve the city.

The battle’s turning point came with a massive cavalry charge led by Sobieski’s elite Polish Winged Hussars, which shattered Ottoman lines and forced a chaotic retreat. Vienna was saved, and Habsburg dominance in Central Europe strengthened. Following Vienna, the Habsburgs steadily reclaimed territory from Ottoman control, leading to the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699, which formally ceded most of Ottoman Hungary to Emperor Leopold I.

The Battle of Vienna shifted the balance of power, establishing the Habsburgs as a dominant force in Central Europe and permanently halting Ottoman advances. The victory also deepened the Holy League's influence, marking the beginning of Ottoman decline and the eventual stabilization of Europe’s borders with the Ottoman Empire. The battle underscored the critical role of alliances, as Catholic and Protestant forces set aside differences to face a common threat, a theme that would continue to shape European diplomacy.

The War of Spanish Succession (1701–1714) was pivotal for the Habsburg monarchy as it set the stage for Austria’s rise in European power politics. When the Spanish Habsburg line died out, leaving the throne in question, both the French Bourbon Philip, Duke of Anjou, and Leopold I’s son, Archduke Charles (later Charles III), laid claim to Spain. The Austrians and their British, Dutch, and Catalan allies fought against the French to prevent a Franco-Spanish union under the Bourbons. Although Austria did not secure Spain, they did gain significant territory in Europe through the Treaty of Rastatt in 1714, including the Spanish Netherlands, Milan, Naples, and Sardinia. These acquisitions further consolidated Austria’s influence in European affairs, though they also stretched Habsburg resources.

After Emperor Joseph I’s death in 1711, Charles III ascended the throne, inheriting the newly expanded Habsburg territories. Faced with his own succession issues—he had only daughters—Charles issued the Pragmatic Sanction in 1713. This edict established that Habsburg lands were indivisible and could pass to a female heir, securing the right of his daughter, Maria Theresa, to inherit the throne. Charles spent years negotiating for European powers to recognize this arrangement, offering territorial concessions in exchange for their acceptance, a task that strained Austria’s finances and diplomacy.

Charles’s reign also saw conflicts in Italy and with the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of Passarowitz (1718) brought gains in Serbia and Wallachia, but the later war against the Ottomans in 1737–1739 led to losses at the Treaty of Belgrade. Domestically, Austria experienced economic expansion and a flourishing cultural scene in the Baroque style, though financial struggles persisted, compounded by a rigid social structure and religious intolerance, as seen in the expulsion of Protestants from Salzburg in 1731 and restrictions on Jews in Bohemia.

By the time of Charles’s death in 1740, Austria had achieved significant territorial growth and established the Pragmatic Sanction’s recognition. However, his death left Austria vulnerable, with a fragile economy and a question looming over whether his carefully secured succession plan would withstand the ambitions of Europe’s rival dynasties.

Maria Theresa’s rule from 1740 to 1780 marked a transformative period for Austria, as she both consolidated Habsburg authority and introduced a wave of reforms that fundamentally reshaped her domains. Her reign began amidst crisis: when her father, Charles VI, died in 1740, the Pragmatic Sanction he had secured to ensure her succession as ruler of Austria and Hungary did not prevent other European powers from challenging her claim. This led to the War of Austrian Succession (1740–1748), during which Prussia, France, and other states contested Austria's power. Although Austria ultimately lost the prosperous region of Silesia to Prussia, Maria Theresa successfully defended most of her territories, securing the Habsburg Empire’s stability for the rest of her reign.

A significant diplomatic shift followed: Maria Theresa allied with France, Austria’s longtime rival, in the Reversal of Alliances, hoping to reclaim Silesia in a fresh conflict against Prussia. This led to the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), a costly and inconclusive struggle that further drained Austria’s finances and underscored the need for internal reform. Despite these wars, Maria Theresa’s reforms strengthened Austria’s administration, economy, and society. Her advisors, including the influential Count von Haugwitz and Gerard van Swieten, played a central role in reforming state structures. Haugwitz initiated efforts to centralize Austria’s administrative apparatus, introduced the first tax levied on the nobility, and began standardizing a civil service, aiming for more efficient governance across the Habsburg territories.

Maria Theresa also enacted sweeping changes in education, notably establishing the Theresianum and modernizing primary education in a Prussian-inspired system. By mandating schooling for both boys and girls and founding teacher-training institutions, she set the foundation for an educated populace—though resistance from traditional sectors, such as the rural nobility, slowed these efforts. Her focus on civil rights included abolishing torture and redefining peasant-lord relations, which limited noble privileges and aimed to protect peasants, aligning with her broader vision of a stable, centralized state. 

Religious policy under Maria Theresa remained conservative despite some reforms. While she reined in the Jesuits, removing their control over education and censorship even before their dissolution by the Pope in 1773, she maintained policies hostile to Protestant and Jewish communities, mandating forced conversions or exile, though her stance softened in her later years.

Maria Theresa’s later years were marked by her co-rule with her son, Joseph II, who became emperor in 1765. Joseph, inspired by Enlightenment ideals, frequently clashed with his mother’s pragmatic conservatism, advocating for faster and more radical reforms. Despite their ideological disagreements, Maria Theresa’s reign prepared Austria for her son’s more aggressive reform agenda, which he would pursue after her death in 1780. Maria Theresa’s rule was pivotal in shaping Austria’s transition from a feudal state into a more centralized and modern entity, blending Baroque absolutism with early Enlightenment ideas.

The Habsburg dynasty underwent profound changes under Maria Theresa’s son, Joseph II, and his successor, Leopold II, between 1780 and 1792. With Maria Theresa’s death in 1780, Joseph II became the sole ruler, bringing a strong Enlightenment influence to the monarchy and attempting sweeping reforms across his diverse empire. Known as "Josephinism," his reforms aimed to modernize and centralize Habsburg rule. Joseph’s policies were driven by his ideal of “enlightened despotism,” intending to impose a uniform, rational governance system across Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, and other territories through 6,000 edicts and 11,000 new laws. However, his aggressive approach stirred resistance throughout the empire, especially among the nobility and traditional clergy, who found his egalitarian taxation and forced German as the official language oppressive.

Joseph’s reforms included abolishing serfdom, enforcing universal education, centralizing healthcare, and granting greater religious tolerance. He limited the influence of the Catholic Church, shutting monasteries he deemed “unproductive,” which deeply angered the clergy. His foreign policy, however, was expansionist, marked by costly wars such as the War of the Bavarian Succession and a prolonged conflict with the Ottoman Empire. Ultimately, Joseph’s ambition to remake the Habsburg territories clashed with entrenched customs and local identities, and by his death in 1790, many of his reforms had been reversed as rebellions threatened imperial stability.

Upon Joseph's death, his brother Leopold II inherited an empire rife with unrest. Leopold swiftly quelled uprisings in Hungary and the Austrian Netherlands, repealed several of Joseph’s policies, and negotiated peace with the Ottomans. Though Leopold favored moderate reform, his reign was overshadowed by the French Revolution. Despite his initial sympathy for the revolutionaries, Leopold’s support for his sister Marie Antoinette and his diplomatic Declaration of Pillnitz inflamed French sentiments, eventually leading to the declaration of war on Austria just after his death in 1792.

During this period, Vienna also flourished as a cultural center. Joseph’s leniency toward censorship under von Swieten fostered a golden age of Viennese music, highlighted by composers like Haydn and Mozart, while the visual arts transitioned from Baroque grandeur to Rococo’s elegant refinement. Although Joseph’s ambitious reforms largely failed, they laid groundwork for the transformations that would shape the Habsburg Empire and Central Europe well into the 19th century.

Francis II's reign (1792–1835) brought Austria through a period of monumental change and challenge, marked by the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. When Francis ascended to the throne in 1792, the Habsburg monarchy faced political upheaval from the revolutionary ideals spreading from France, where his aunt Marie Antoinette was executed in 1793. The chaos led Austria to backtrack on its former progressive reforms and focus instead on maintaining stability and order, intensifying censorship, and suppressing revolutionary ideas.

Austria became entangled in the wars initiated by revolutionary France, starting with the War of the First Coalition (1792–1797). Though initially successful, Austria soon lost key territories like the Austrian Netherlands, and with Napoleon rising to power, the situation became increasingly dire. France’s occupation of Italian territories and Austria’s exclusion from the Second Partition of Poland drove Austria into several more coalitions against France, including the Second Coalition (1798–1801), ending in more territorial losses. By 1804, with Napoleon declaring himself Emperor, Francis II transformed the Habsburg monarchy into the Austrian Empire, acknowledging the decline of the Holy Roman Empire and the Habsburgs' shrinking influence over German-speaking lands. In 1806, following Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine, Francis officially dissolved the Holy Roman Empire.

Europe in 1812 after several French victories. © Alexander Altenhof

Further conflicts ensued in the Napoleonic Wars, with Austria suffering severe defeats at battles such as Austerlitz (1805) and Wagram (1809). To secure peace, Austria even resorted to a strategic marriage between Francis's daughter, Marie Louise, and Napoleon in 1810. When Napoleon’s forces were devastated in the Russian campaign of 1812, Austria seized the chance to shift allegiances. Under Foreign Minister Klemens von Metternich, Austria joined the Sixth Coalition in 1813, leading to Napoleon's eventual defeat at Leipzig and his first abdication in 1814.

The Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) convened to restructure Europe after Napoleon's final defeat. Chaired by Metternich, the Congress aimed to restore order and establish a balance of power, creating the German Confederation under Austrian influence. While Austria regained territories and took control of Northern Italy, it was unable to reclaim the Austrian Netherlands, underscoring the limits of Austria’s influence in the new European landscape. The Congress established the "Concert of Europe," an alliance system for maintaining peace and countering revolutionary movements, with Metternich leading Austria’s conservative stance.

In the arts, this period saw a flourishing of Viennese culture, epitomized by Beethoven, who captured the era's political turbulence in symphonies like the Eroica. However, Austria's conservative outlook under Metternich increasingly clashed with Europe’s shift toward modernization, laying the groundwork for future tensions in the rapidly changing 19th-century political order.

The Biedermeier period (1815–1848) followed the Congress of Vienna, a time when Austria, led by Prince Metternich, focused on stability, censorship, and suppressing nationalist and liberal movements. This era, also known as the "Age of Metternich" or Vormärz, saw Metternich use an extensive network of surveillance and state police to silence opposition, pushing dissenters underground or into exile. Despite Metternich’s control, Europe was undergoing massive social and economic changes, with industrialization beginning to impact Austria's urban areas and social structures.

Europe after the Congress of Vienna. © Alexander Altenhof

Metternich’s foreign policy efforts emphasized conservative alliances and support for the established order. Austria was part of the "Congress System" of regular meetings among European powers, designed to maintain peace and stability. However, cracks in this alliance appeared as nationalist uprisings began reshaping Europe. Independence movements in South America, the liberal revolts in Portugal and Spain, and the independence of Belgium from the Netherlands weakened Austria’s grip on Europe. Metternich had some success containing German nationalism, passing the Carlsbad Decrees in 1819 to restrict free speech across the German Confederation, which Metternich hoped would diffuse nationalist fervor.

Nationalist aspirations within Austria's own territories also began to rise, notably in Italy, where groups like the Carbonari aimed for independence. Austria, a multinational empire, struggled with these pressures, especially in culturally distinct areas like Lombardy, Venetia, Galicia, and Bohemia, where local identities began to push against Habsburg control.

Meanwhile, Austria’s economy lagged behind its European counterparts. While state intervention was minimal, certain developments like the establishment of the National Bank in 1816 and the construction of the Austrian Southern Railway in the 1830s indicated gradual modernization. Urbanization began, creating a new urban working class, but overall economic growth was slow, unable to match the rate of population increase. Taxes remained uneven, with the aristocracy and Hungary contributing little, which kept the military budget relatively low and limited Metternich’s foreign policy.

Under Francis I and his successor Ferdinand I, Austria resisted reform. While Francis kept a firm hold on power, Ferdinand’s poor health meant effective governance rested with Metternich and Archduke Louis. The empire remained politically stagnant, with Metternich’s conservative approach increasingly at odds with the rising currents of nationalism and liberalism, setting the stage for the revolutionary upheaval of 1848.

The Revolutions of 1848 swept through Europe, and Austria saw calls for liberal and nationalist reforms that forced Metternich and the mentally disabled Emperor Ferdinand I to step down. The Emperor’s nephew, Franz Joseph, ascended to the throne at just 18. Initially, the revolutionary momentum pushed Austria toward constitutional reforms, but these were quickly curtailed as Franz Joseph consolidated power and reverted to absolutism, using military force to suppress revolts in places like Lombardy and Hungary. In 1850, Austria abandoned any constitutional promises, but it did free its peasant class, a move that later facilitated industrialization.

Austria’s foreign policy faced numerous challenges. During the Crimean War (1853–1856), Austria tried to remain neutral, a stance that angered both allies and potential foes. Austria’s influence in Italy, where the movement for unification (Risorgimento) was growing, soon led to the Second Italian War of Independence (1859). Piedmont and France, led by Napoleon III, provoked Austria into war, where it suffered critical defeats. By 1860, Austria had ceded Lombardy to France, and Italy unified under the Kingdom of Sardinia. These losses further pressured Austria into granting limited constitutional rights and initiating the “October Diploma” (1860) and the “February Patent” (1861), which introduced the Reichsrat, or Imperial Council, though Hungarian leaders resisted.

Tensions with Prussia grew, especially over the German Confederation. Austria joined Prussia against Denmark in the Second Schleswig War (1864), claiming Holstein but ultimately clashing with Prussia over its future. The rivalry culminated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, with Italy joining Prussia. Austria’s defeat at the Battle of Königgrätz forced it to cede Venetia to Italy and accept Prussian dominance in the new North German Confederation, ending Austria’s role in German affairs.

In 1867, Austria reached the Austro-Hungarian Compromise (Ausgleich), creating the Dual Monarchy. Austria and Hungary would now be co-equal realms under Emperor Franz Joseph, each with its parliament and government but sharing foreign and military policies. While Hungary gained autonomy, this arrangement heightened other national tensions, particularly among Slavic populations in Bohemia and Galicia, who also sought independence.

Throughout Franz Joseph’s long reign, Vienna transformed culturally and economically, especially in the “Gründerzeit” era of rapid expansion and modernization. Industrialization flourished, and the 1873 World Exposition in Vienna celebrated this prosperity despite an economic crash the same year. Politically, the empire saw emerging party divisions and expanded suffrage. Yet, nationalist and ethnic tensions continued to rise, especially after Bosnia and Herzegovina’s occupation (1878) and formal annexation (1908). 

Vienna became a cultural center in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The arts thrived with the Vienna Secession movement, led by Gustav Klimt, and the onset of Jugendstil, or Art Nouveau, architecture. The era produced musical giants like Mahler and literary figures such as Karl Kraus. However, growing demands for social reform, liberal challenges, and nationalistic tensions tested the Dual Monarchy. By 1914, Austria-Hungary faced mounting pressures from internal discontent, setting the stage for its eventual decline in the coming war.

Austria-Hungary’s involvement in World War I began with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June 28, 1914, by Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo, Bosnia. Though the event initially caused little public outcry in Vienna, it intensified ethnic hostilities and prompted Austria-Hungary to issue a strict ultimatum to Serbia. The empire’s leaders, especially under Foreign Minister Count Berchtold and General Conrad von Hötzendorf, viewed Serbia’s growing influence among Slavs as a threat to the multiethnic stability of the empire. Backed by Germany, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914, setting off a chain of alliances and igniting World War I.

Ethno-linguistic map of Austria-Hungary, 1910. © ArdadN

On the battlefield, Austria-Hungary struggled. Early campaigns in Serbia were disastrous, with severe losses. Although the empire finally occupied Serbia with German and Bulgarian help in 1915, heavy losses and constant need for German assistance highlighted its military weaknesses. The Eastern Front against Russia also took a harsh toll, as Austrian forces faced brutal defeats at Lemberg and Przemyśl in 1914. Austria only regained ground when Germany took command in the 1915 Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive. The Brusilov Offensive of 1916 further weakened Austrian forces, pushing the empire to the brink of collapse on the Eastern Front.

Italy entered the war in 1915, joining the Allies and opening a grueling front along the Isonzo River. Despite some Austrian victories with German help, the Italian Front drained resources. Meanwhile, the empire’s harsh policies in occupied territories like Romania deepened economic woes, as seized resources left civilians and soldiers at home undersupplied. 

By 1916, with Emperor Franz Joseph’s death, his successor, Emperor Karl, sought peace. His attempts to negotiate with the Allies, however, were blocked by Italy, which demanded Austrian territory as a condition of peace. On the home front, nationalist aspirations and worsening economic conditions stirred unrest. Ethnic divisions weakened military and civil unity, with increasing strikes, food shortages, and inflation severely impacting morale.

In 1918, facing imminent defeat, nationalist groups in the empire took advantage of military failures. Czechoslovakia declared independence in late October, followed by South Slavic regions forming the State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs. Hungary ended its union with Austria on October 17, effectively dissolving the Dual Monarchy. By November 3, 1918, Austria-Hungary signed the Armistice of Villa Giusti with Italy, formally ending its role in the war. Emperor Karl abdicated shortly after, and Austria and Hungary became separate republics, officially dissolving Austria-Hungary.

After World War I, Austria faced the daunting challenge of restructuring as a small, economically weakened republic from the ashes of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Following the empire’s defeat, Austria’s military signed the Armistice of Villa Giusti in November 1918, signaling the dissolution of the Habsburg realm. Emperor Karl abdicated, and on November 12, Austria declared itself the Republic of German-Austria. Many Austrians initially viewed union with the new Weimar Republic in Germany as a path to economic viability, but the Allies explicitly forbade such a merger in the Treaty of Saint Germain in 1919, concerned over the rise of a “Greater Germany.”

With its population reduced to only German-speaking Austrians, Austria lost much of its agricultural and industrial resources. Despite attempts to claim territories with German-speaking populations in Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Italy, Austria’s appeals were rejected. As a result, Austria was left economically strained and geographically isolated, described by French leader Georges Clemenceau as simply “what’s left” of the once-massive empire. Further, the Treaty of Saint Germain obligated Austria to officially change its name to the “Republic of Austria,” dropping the “German” descriptor in an attempt to curtail future ambitions of unification with Germany.

Domestically, Austria's political landscape evolved as both left-wing and right-wing parties gained power and influence. The Christian Social Party (CS), rooted in conservative Catholicism, became a leading force, and in the early years collaborated with the Social Democrats (SDAPÖ), who commanded strong support in “Red Vienna” due to their social welfare policies. However, by 1920, the coalition dissolved, and the Christian Social Party took control with backing from the nationalist Greater German People's Party (GDVP).

Economic turmoil marked the post-war period. Hyperinflation plagued the new republic, prompting widespread poverty and political unrest. In response, the League of Nations granted a loan to stabilize Austria’s economy, and in 1925, Austria replaced its struggling currency, the Krone, with the Schilling. However, the terms required Austria to avoid any unification with Germany for at least 20 years, solidifying Austria’s isolation from German politics.

The 1920s were also marked by political polarization and the rise of paramilitary groups. Right-wing groups formed the Heimwehr, while the left-wing Republikanischer Schutzbund emerged to counterbalance them. These factions frequently clashed, leading to episodes of violence, including the 1927 July Revolt, where a protest turned deadly, leaving 89 people dead and deepening Austria’s political divisions.

By 1930, the Social Democrats emerged as the largest parliamentary bloc but faced increasing challenges from conservative parties. Political tensions reached new heights in 1932 when Engelbert Dollfuß of the Christian Social Party narrowly became Chancellor. His appointment marked the end of Austria’s fragile democratic balance, setting the stage for a shift toward authoritarianism in the years that followed.

In 1933, Austria shifted toward dictatorship under Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss, driven by concerns about rising Nazism in Germany and Austria's own political instability. Fearing a similar takeover by Austrian Nazis, Dollfuss dissolved the Austrian parliament after a procedural issue on March 4, effectively seizing power in a move he described as parliament’s "self-elimination." He implemented strict controls, banning public assemblies, curtailing freedom of the press, and using a wartime emergency law to assume executive and legislative powers. This shift to authoritarian rule marked the end of democratic governance in Austria and the start of an Austrofascist regime inspired by Benito Mussolini's model in Italy.

Dollfuss took further steps to consolidate control by banning all political parties, including the Nazis (DNSAP) in June and the Communists. He also moved to establish a single-party state, forming the "Patriotic Front" (Vaterländische Front) as Austria’s only legal party, and aligned himself closely with Italy to counterbalance Germany's influence. Mussolini even pledged military support for Austrian independence. To Dollfuss, both the Nazi and Communist movements represented a threat to Austria’s independence and its Catholic, conservative values.

Tensions escalated in February 1934 when Austrian government forces clashed with the Social Democrats’ paramilitary group, the Republikanischer Schutzbund, in the Austrian Civil War. The conflict ended swiftly with the government’s victory, leading to the official ban of the Social Democratic Party and tightening of Dollfuss’s grip on power. In May 1934, Dollfuss’s government approved a new authoritarian constitution, reinforcing Austria as a single-party state with strong corporatist control over labor and society. However, his leadership soon faced a serious threat from Austrian Nazis, emboldened by Hitler’s consolidation of power in Germany.

On July 25, 1934, a group of Austrian Nazis attempted a coup and assassinated Dollfuss. His successor, Kurt Schuschnigg, continued Dollfuss’s anti-Nazi policies, resisting calls for unification with Germany. But pressure from Hitler intensified, culminating in March 1938 with Hitler’s demand for a Nazi-friendly government in Austria. Under duress, Schuschnigg resigned, and German forces entered Austria unopposed, leading to the Anschluss and Austria’s incorporation into Nazi Germany.

Austria's annexation by Nazi Germany began on March 12, 1938, when German troops entered the country without resistance, marking the start of the Anschluss. The day after, Hitler formally declared Austria part of the German Reich, claiming it was a fulfillment of uniting "German Austria" with Germany, as he had expressed in Mein Kampf. Many Austrians welcomed the annexation, and in a heavily propagandized referendum held in April, 99% of voters reportedly approved the union, though Jews, political prisoners, and other targeted groups were excluded from voting.

After the Anschluss, Nazi policies were swiftly implemented in Austria, leading to widespread persecution of Jews, Romani people, political dissidents, and other minorities. Prominent Jewish intellectuals, artists, and scientists, including Sigmund Freud, Arnold Schönberg, and Erwin Schrödinger, fled abroad, joining a large wave of emigration. A concentration camp was opened at Mauthausen, where thousands of political prisoners, Jews, and Romani were detained and killed.

During World War II, Austrian soldiers were conscripted into the Wehrmacht, with around 1.3 million Austrians serving in the German military. Austria was also heavily bombed as Allied forces targeted industrial and transportation infrastructure, especially in cities like Vienna and Linz, which were key centers of production for German arms and equipment.

The Austrian resistance was fragmented but persistent, consisting of communist groups, Catholic resistance cells, and conservative groups who opposed Nazi rule. One of the most notable resistance networks was led by the Catholic priest Heinrich Maier, who successfully provided Allied forces with intelligence on German military production sites, aiding in targeted bombings. However, the Gestapo dismantled many Austrian resistance groups, and members faced execution or deportation to concentration camps.

As the war drew to a close, Soviet and American forces advanced into Austrian territory in April 1945. Following Hitler’s suicide and Germany’s surrender on May 8, Austria was liberated and divided into four occupation zones, governed by the Allies. In the postwar years, Austria embraced the "victim theory," which portrayed the country as the Nazis' "first victim," distancing it from responsibility for the atrocities committed during Nazi rule.

After World War II, Austria re-emerged as an independent country, and in April 1945, Karl Renner, an elder statesman, established a provisional government. This government, including representatives from the Socialist, Conservative, and Communist parties, was quickly recognized by the Allies, who treated Austria as a liberated rather than defeated nation. By May 9, 1945, Austria was occupied by the Allies and divided into zones controlled by American, British, French, and Soviet forces. Vienna itself was similarly divided, with a central International Zone. Although the Austrian government was under Allied oversight, it managed limited foreign relations, joining initiatives such as the Danube Commission in 1948.

Occupation zones in Austria. © Master Uegly

The Second Republic was marked by political stability, contrasting sharply with the divisive First Republic era. The Austrian People’s Party (ÖVP) and the Social Democratic Party (SPÖ) formed a coalition government until 1966, with the Communist Party (KPÖ) remaining briefly in the coalition until 1950. Austria received significant assistance from the Marshall Plan beginning in 1948, helping with economic recovery, though the country’s neutrality limited its eligibility for American military aid. American influence also brought about significant cultural and institutional shifts, modernizing Austria’s media, education, and healthcare systems.

In 1955, the Austrian State Treaty was signed, officially ending the occupation and declaring Austria’s neutrality. This principle of neutrality was enshrined in Austria’s constitution on October 26, 1955, which remains celebrated as Austrian National Day. Political life in the Second Republic became characterized by "Proporz," a power-sharing system where public offices and representation were proportionately divided between the SPÖ and ÖVP. This consensual governance style, along with mandatory interest group representation, became a staple of Austrian politics, facilitating broad-based decision-making and a stable democratic framework that continues to characterize Austrian governance today.

The Austrian State Treaty in 1955 granted Austria full independence on the condition of permanent neutrality, which it enshrined in its constitution. During the Cold War, Austria maintained its neutrality while benefitting from economic recovery initiatives like the Marshall Plan, gradually becoming a stable and prosperous democratic state.

In 1995, Austria joined the European Union, integrating more closely with Western Europe and adopting the euro in 1999. The country experienced occasional political turbulence, marked by coalition governments and the growing influence of right-wing populist parties. Despite political shifts, Austria continued to evolve economically and socially, balancing its neutrality with increasing engagement in European and global affairs.

In recent years, Austria faced internal challenges related to political scandals and changes in leadership, navigating these shifts while remaining a stable, neutral player within the EU. This period reflects Austria’s resilience and adaptability within a modern, interconnected Europe.