The May Revolution of 1810 in Buenos Aires marked the beginning of Argentina's independence movement and a reshaping of the political landscape of the former Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. The revolution ousted the Spanish viceroy and initiated a period of political experimentation and military struggle as the region sought to define its future.
Background: Seeds of Revolution
The Revolution was fueled by both international and local factors that undermined Spanish authority in the region. Globally, the American and French Revolutions inspired revolutionary ideals among the criollos, emphasizing liberty, equality, and self-governance. The Industrial Revolution, combined with Britain’s need for new markets due to the Napoleonic Wars, also pressured Spain's restrictive trade policies.
The territory of modern Argentina was part of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, created in 1776 by Spain to consolidate its hold on South America. However, regional disparities and frustrations with Spanish governance fueled discontent. The wealthiest regions, such as Upper Peru (modern Bolivia), maintained stronger ties to Lima, while Buenos Aires emerged as a vital Atlantic port. Resentment grew among criollos (locally born Spanish descendants), who saw peninsulares (Spaniards from Europe) dominate political and economic life.
The British invasions of the Río de la Plata (1806–1807) exposed Spain's weakness and militarized Buenos Aires. Local militias, such as the Patricios Regiment, gained political influence, challenging Spanish authority. Meanwhile, the Napoleonic invasion of Spain in 1808 further destabilized the empire. With King Ferdinand VII captured, the legitimacy of Spanish colonial rule came into question, and revolutionary ideas gained traction.
The May Revolution (1810)
The revolution began in Buenos Aires in May 1810. News of the collapse of the Spanish Junta of Seville prompted calls for an open cabildo to decide the region's governance. On May 25, the Primera Junta replaced Viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros, marking the start of self-rule. Initially, the revolutionaries pledged loyalty to Ferdinand VII, but divisions soon emerged between patriots seeking autonomy and royalists loyal to Spain.
Resistance arose in Córdoba, Montevideo, Paraguay, and Upper Peru, regions where royalist forces sought to suppress the revolution. Buenos Aires sent military campaigns to secure these areas, but the conflict quickly spread across the former viceroyalty.
The Early Revolutionary Government
In the aftermath of the revolution, the viceroyalty was renamed the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata. While some leaders entertained ideas of establishing a constitutional monarchy or a regency, the political reality remained fluid as territories aligned or resisted the revolutionary cause. The first governing body, the Primera Junta, expanded into the Junta Grande but faced internal divisions. It was replaced by the First Triumvirate in 1811, followed by the Second Triumvirate in 1813, which convened the Assembly of the Year XIII. This assembly aimed to declare independence and draft a constitution but failed to achieve either. Instead, it established the position of Supreme Director as the head of state.
Early Struggles (1810–1813)
Patriots faced early setbacks. Manuel Belgrano and Juan José Castelli led campaigns into Paraguay and Upper Peru, with mixed results. Belgrano’s army was defeated at Paraguarí and Tacuarí, while Castelli secured initial victories in Upper Peru but suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Huaqui in 1811.
In the Banda Oriental (modern Uruguay), the revolutionary leader José Gervasio Artigas launched uprisings, eventually besieging Montevideo. Simultaneously, patriot naval forces under William Brown secured critical victories, disrupting Spanish supply lines.
The Army of the North and the Jujuy Exodus
In 1812, General Manuel Belgrano reorganized the Army of the North to confront royalist forces in Upper Peru. Facing overwhelming odds, he ordered the Jujuy Exodus, a scorched-earth retreat that denied resources to the advancing enemy. Belgrano’s victories at the Battle of Tucumán (1812) and the Battle of Salta (1813) temporarily turned the tide, but subsequent defeats at Vilcapugio and Ayohuma forced the patriots to retreat.
San Martín and the Army of the Andes
José de San Martín emerged as a pivotal leader. Rejecting further campaigns in Upper Peru, he devised a bold strategy to strike at Spanish power in Lima by liberating Chile and Peru. Stationed in Mendoza as governor of Cuyo, San Martín assembled the Army of the Andes with Chilean exiles and Argentine patriots. In 1817, he led the audacious Crossing of the Andes, defeating royalists at the Battle of Chacabuco and liberating Santiago.
By 1818, San Martín and Chilean leader Bernardo O'Higgins consolidated independence in Chile with a decisive victory at the Battle of Maipú. San Martín then prepared for the liberation of Peru, marking a turning point in the broader South American independence movement.
Declaration of Independence (1816)
Amid the military campaigns, the Congress of Tucumán convened in 1816. On July 9, delegates formally declared the independence of the United Provinces of South America. This declaration severed ties with Spain and set the foundation for a new national identity. However, the war continued, and regional divisions persisted, delaying full unification.
Conclusion of the War (1817–1825)
After securing Chile’s independence, San Martín advanced to Peru, liberating Lima in 1821 and declaring Peruvian independence. The royalist threat persisted in Upper Peru, but guerrilla fighters like Martín Miguel de Güemes defended the northern frontiers. The Spanish defeat at the Battle of Ayacucho in 1825 ended the royalist presence in South America, solidifying independence.
By 1825, Bolivia had declared its independence, breaking away from the former viceroyalty. Uruguay emerged as a separate nation in 1828 after the Cisplatine War, which saw Argentina and Brazil contest the Banda Oriental. Meanwhile, France-Argentine naval commander Hippolyte Bouchard extended the revolutionary struggle overseas, attacking Spanish territories in the Americas and the Pacific. Bouchard’s campaigns gained recognition for Argentina’s independence, including support from the Kingdom of Hawaii under King Kamehameha I.
In 1825, the United Kingdom became the first major power to officially recognize Argentine independence through the Treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation. Spain, however, delayed recognition for several decades, reflecting the enduring tensions between the former colony and its European ruler.
Legacy
The Argentine War of Independence established the framework for modern Argentina and inspired liberation movements across South America. The United Provinces of the Río de la Plata fragmented into several independent nations, but Argentina emerged as the successor state to the revolutionary movement. Leaders like San Martín became symbols of unity and resistance, while events like the May Revolution and the Crossing of the Andes are celebrated as defining moments in Argentina’s history. The war also highlighted the challenges of nation-building, as regional divisions and external conflicts continued to shape the emerging republic.